ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is the study of the

compounds of carbon, except the
carbonates of metals and the oxides of
carbon.
HYDROCARBONS
A hydrocarbon is a compound which
consists of carbon and hydrogen only
 HOMOLOGOUS SERIES 
A homologous series is a family of related organic
compounds with the same functional group.
Since there are many organic compounds, they are
divided into families. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES 
1 All the members have the same general
molecular formula e.g Alkanes, CnH2n+2, Alkenes,
CnH2n,alcohols, CnH2n+1OH, carboxylic acid,
CnH2n+1COOH.
2 Each member of the series differs from
the next by a –CH2 unit.
3 All the members have similar
chemical properties.
4 The physical properties(density,
melting point, boiling point, physical
state, and colour) in the series change
gradually as the number of carbon
atoms increase in the molecules.
 FUNCTIONAL GROUP

A functional group is a
particular bond , atom or
group of atoms that is
responsible for the particular
properties of that group of
compounds.
 ALKANES 
• An alkane is a saturated hydrocarbon.
• A saturated hydrocarbon is one in
which all the carbon-carbon bonds are
single.
• Alkanes have a general formula of
CnH2n+2, where n is the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule.
• Their names end with –ane.
No of Chemical Chemical Molecular Structural formula Boiling Physical
carbon name formula mass point State at
atoms r.t.p.

methane CH4 16 H -162 Gas

1 ǀ
H—C—H
ǀ
H

ethane C2H6 30 H H -89 Gas

2 or ǀ ǀ
CH3CH3 H—C— C ꟷH
ǀ ǀ
H H
3 propane C3H8 44 H H H -53 gas
ǀ ǀ ǀ
Or H—C — C — C —H
ǀ ǀ ǀ
CH3CH2CH3 H H H

4 butane C4H10 58 H H H H -0.5 gas

ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
Or H—C — C — C — C —H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
CH3CH2CH2CH3 H H H H

5 pentane C5H12 78 H H H H H 36 liquid

ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
Or H—C — C — C— C — C —H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 H H H H H
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
 
Alkanes, also known as paraffins are
unreactive towards many chemicals.
When they react, it is usually in the
gaseous state and energy must be
supplied to get the reaction started. 
 Combustion
Alkanes react when heated to give
carbon dioxide and water.
 eg CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
 
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)→ 4CO2(g) +6H2O(l)
If the supply of oxygen is limited,
combustion is incomplete and carbon
monoxide is produced instead of carbon
dioxide.
 
i.e. 2CH4(g)+ 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2O(l)
 
 SUBSTITUTION
Substitution reaction is one in which a halogen
atom replaces a hydrogen atom . This
happens in the presence of light.
An example is the reaction of methane with
chlorine.
 
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
Methane methyl chloride
(Monochloromethane)
 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF PETROLEUM
 
• Petroleum is also known as crude oil
(not pure).
• It is a mixture of many alkanes, which
are separated by fractional distillation .
• It is heated until it evaporates and the
vapour is passed into the bottom of a tall
fractionating tower.
• The tower is divided into several
compartments each cooler than the
one below.
• The more volatile(easily evaporate)
fractions condense at the top, and the
less volatile ones at the bottom.
• Each fraction is redistilled to make it
pure.
As the molecules get larger, the fractions get less
runny, or more viscous: from gas at the top of the
tower to solid at the bottom. They also get less
flammable. So the last two fractions in the table
are not used as fuels.
 CRACKING 

• Cracking is the process of breaking down a large

alkane molecule into smaller molecules.
 
CATALYTIC CRACKING
• This is when a long chain alkane molecule is
heated in the presence of a catalyst and the vapour
produced breaks down to an alkane and alkenes.
The catalyst used is aluminium oxide.
 
E.g C10H22 → C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4
Decane pentane propene ethene
 STEAM CRACKING
This is a process of heating a small alkane molecule
in the presence of steam to produce an alkene and
hydrogen.
WHY CRACKING IS DONE 
1 To produce smaller molecules the right size of
petrol
2 To produce alkenes which are used to make

plastics and other substances

3 To produce hydrogen gas
 ISOMERS
 

Isomers are compounds with the same molecular

formula but different structures.
 

Examples
Isomers of butane

Normal butane 2-methylpropane

 
H H H H H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H —C —C —C — C —H H — C—H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ H H
H H H H ǀ ǀ
H—C — C —C —H
ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H
 ISOMERS OF PENTANE
Normal pentane 2-methylbutane
 
H H H H H H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ |
H —C —C —C —C— C —H H — C—H
| | | | | H H H

H H H H H ǀ ǀ ǀ
H — C — C —C — C —H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H
2,2-dimethylpropane
H
ǀ
H —C—H
H H
ǀ ǀ
H — C — C — C —H
ǀ ǀ
H H
H— C — H
ǀ
H
 ALKENES 
• An alkene is an unsaturated
hydrocarbon.
• An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one
with a double or triple carbon- carbon
bond somewhere in the molecule.
•Alkenes form a homologous series of
general formula CnH2n.
•Their names end with _ene .
No of Chemical Chemical Molecular Structural formula Boiling Physi
carbons name formula mass Point/0C cal
state
2 Ethene C2H4 28 H H -104 Gas
\ ̸
C= C
̸ \
H H
3 Propene C3H6 42 H H H -48 Gas
ǀ \ ̸
H —C — C = C
ǀ \
H H
 Butene C4H8 56 H H H H -6 Gas
4 ǀ ǀ \ ̸
H—C — C — C = C
ǀ ǀ \
H H H
5 pentene C5H10 70 H H H H H 24 Gas
ǀ ǀ ǀ \ ̸
H—C — C — C —C =C
ǀ ǀ ǀ \
H H H H
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKENES
 
• The functional group of alkenes is
the carbon-carbon double
bond(C=C).
•The bond readily undergoes
addition reactions.
• An addition reaction is one in
which atoms are added across a
double bond.
 HYDROGENATION
Alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes in a
reaction called hydrogenation. It reacts a nickel
catalyst.
 
Example

H H H H
\ ̸ ǀ ǀ
C = C + H2 → H —C — C—H
̸ \ ǀ ǀ
H H H H
Ethene Ethane
(Alkene) (Alkane)
 H H H H H H
ǀ ǀ ̸ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H —C — C = C + H2 → H—C —C —C —H
| \ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H H
Propene propane

(Alkene) (Alkane)
  
HYDRATION
Alkenes react with water to produce alcohols in a
reaction called hydration. A catalyst of phosphoric
acid is used.

Examples
 
H H H H
\ ̸ ǀ ǀ
C = C + H—O—H → H—C —C —O—H
̸ \ ǀ ǀ
H H H H
Ethene ethanol
(Alkene) (Alcohol)
 H H H H H H
ǀ \ ̸ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H—C — C = C + H—O—H → H—C — C — C—O—H
ǀ \ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H H
Propene propanol
 HALOGENATION
• The addition of a halogen to an alkene is
called halogenation.
• The addition of chlorine is called
chlorination.
• The addition of bromine to an alkene is
called bromination.
• The addition of bromine is used to
distinguish between an alkane and alkene.
• When an alkene is bubbled
through red bromine, the colour of
bromine disappears.
• With an alkane, the colour does
not disappear.
• This shows that alkenes react with
bromine whereas alkanes do not.
 Reactions
 
H H H H
\ ̸ ǀ ǀ
C=C + Br2 → H — C — C —H
̸ \ ǀ ǀ
H H Br Br
Ethene
1,2-dibromoethane
 
H H H H H H
ǀ \ ̸ | ǀ ǀ
H— C — C = C + Br2 → H— C — C — C —H
| ̸ \ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H Br Br
Propene 1,2-dibromopropane
 ALCOHOLS
 
• Alcohols are a homologous series
of compounds with a functional
group of (OH) joined to a carbon
atom in a saturated carbon chain.
• They have a general formula of
CnH2n+1OH.
• They are named by replacing the letter
e at the end of the name of the
corresponding alkane with the letters –
ol.
• They are also known as alkanols.
 Table
No Chemical Chemical Molecular Structural formula Boiling Physical
of name formula mass point/ C state
0

carb
ons
1 Methanol CH3OH 32 H 65 Liquid
ǀ
H —C —O—H
ǀ
H
2 Ethanol C2H5OH 46 H H 78 Liquid
ǀ ǀ
H —C — C —O—H
ǀ ǀ
H H
3 Propanol C3H7OH 60 H H H 97 liquid
ǀ ǀ ǀ
H —C —C — C —O—H
ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H
 Table
4 Butanol C4H9OH 74 H H H H 117 Liquid
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H—C —C —C— C—O—H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H
5 pentanol C5H11OH 88 H H H H H 137 liquid
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H —C —C—C — C — C—O—H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H H
ISOMERS OF PROPANOL
 
• PROPANOL OR PROPAN-1-OL 2 - PROPANOL OR PROPAN-2 - OL

 
H H H H H H
| | | | | |
Hꟷ Cꟷ C ꟷCꟷOꟷ H Hꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ H
| | | | | |
H H H H O H
|
H
 ISOMERS OF BUTANOL
 
• 1 - BUTANOL OR BUTAN-1-OL 2- BUTANOL OR BUTAN-2-OL
H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | |
HꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷOꟷH Hꟷ CꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷ
H
| | | | | | | |
H H H H H H O H

|
H
• ISOMERS OF PENTANOL
 
1-PENTANOL OR PENTAN- 1 -OL 2-PENTANOL OR PENTAN-2 -OL 3-PENTANOL OR PENTAN - 3 - OL
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

H ꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ Cꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ O ꟷ H HꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷCꟷH H ꟷ C ꟷ Cꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ C ꟷ
H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H O H H H O H H
| |
H H
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOLS
 
• They react with metals to form salts and hydrogen
Eg
2CH3OH + 2Na → 2CH3ONa + H2
Sodium methoxide
 
2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa + H2
Sodium ethoxide
• They burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water
Eg
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
• Alcohols can be dehydrated to alkenes in the presence
of aluminium oxide catalyst. The process of removing
water from a substance is called DEHYDRATION.
 eg

H H H H
| | \ ̸
H—C — C—O—H → C=C + H2O
| | ̸ \
H H H H
Ethanolethene
• Alcohols can be oxidized by oxygen of the air to
carboxylic acid and water.
 O
‖
CH3OH
+ O2 → H — C —O—H + H2O
Methanoic acid
H O
ǀ ǁ
CH3CH2OH + O2 → H— C — C —O—H + H2O
ǀ
H
Ethanoic acid
• These reactions occur in the presence
of bacteria, which makes the acids have
a sour taste.
• Alcohols can also be oxidized by other
oxidizing agents like potassium
permanganate and potassium
dichromate to carboxylic acids.
 MANUFACTURE OF ETHANOL
BY FERMENTATION
• Fermentation is a process in which enzymes in yeast break
down glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide. This is done at
room temperature. The source of glucose is starch present in
foods.
 
Starch → glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
Hydrolysis fermentation
 
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2CO2
• The fermented mixture is FILTERED and the alcohol is
extracted bi FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.
Starch → glucose → ethanol + carbon
dioxide

 
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2CO2
The fermented mixture is FILTERED and the alcohol
is extracted by FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.
 BY HYDRATION OF ALKENES
Eg
H H H H
\ ̸ ǀ ǀ
C =C + H2O → H —C = C—O—H
̸ \ ǀ ǀ
H H H H
• The conditions required for the manufacture of
alcohols from alkenes are:
Catalyst of phosphoric acid, temperature of 5700C
and pressure of 70 atmospheres.
USES OF ETHANOL
1 In alcoholic drinks
2 As a solvent
3 As a fuel cars
4 As starting material for other chemicals
 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
• Carboxylic acids are a homologous series
with a carboxyl(COOH) , the functional group
joined to carbon atom.
• They have a general formula of
CnH2n+1COOH,where n=0 for the first
compound in the series.
• They are named by replacing letter e at the
end of the corresponding alkane with the
letters- oic.
 Table
No of Chemical Chemical Molecular Structural formula Boiling Physical
carbon name formula mass point/0 state at
atoms r.t.p

1 Methanoic HCOOH 46 O 100 Liquid

acid ǁ
H—C—O—H

2 Ethanoic CH3COOH 60 H O 118 liquid

acid ǀ ǁ
H —C — C —O—H
ǀ
H
3 Propanoic C2H5COOH 74
Table
H H O 141 Liquid
acid ǀ ǀ ǁ
H —C —C — C —O—H
ǀ ǀ
H H
4 Butanoic C3H7COOH 88 H H H O 164 liquid
acid ǀ ǀ ǀ ǁ
H—C —C— C —C—O—H
ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID (CH3COOH)
 
• When dissolved in water, ethanoic acid ionizes to
produce H+and CH3COO-.
CH3COOH CHCOO- + H+
• It is a weak acid. It is not completely ionized
• It reacts with reactive metals to form a salt and
hydrogen.
2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2
Sodiumethanoate
2CH3COOH + Mg → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
Magnesiumethanoate
• It reacts with bases to form a salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
• It reacts with carbonates to form a salt, water
and carbondioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

2CH3COOH + CaCO3 → (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2

 FORMATION OF ESTERS
The reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to
form an ESTER is called ESTERIFICATION.
Carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water.
  
Examples
 

ethanol + ethanoic acid ethylethanoate + water

H H H O H H O H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǁ ǀ ǀ ǁ ǀ
H— C — C —O—H + H—C = C—O—H H —C— C — O—C —C—H + H 2O
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
H H H H H H
ethanol + propanoic acid ethylpropanoate + water

H H H H O H H O H H
ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ ǁ ǀ ǀ ǁ ǀ |
H— C — C—O—H + H—C—C — C—O—H H—C — C — O—C—C— C—H + H2O
ǀ | ǀ | ǀ | ǀ |
H H H H H H H H
 USES OF ESTERS

1to make solvents

2in perfumes because
of the sweet smell
3in flavours
 MACROMOLECULES

• A macromolecule is a large
molecule made from small
molecules.
• The process of joining together
small molecules to form a large
molecule is called
POLYMERISATION.
• The small molecule used to form
a macromolecule is called
MONOMER.
• The large molecule formed from
monomers is called POLYMER.
 CLASSES OF POLYMERS
1 Synthetic polymers
2 Natural polymers
• Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers.
• Natural polymers are polymers that exist in
nature and are mainly found in foods.
• Addition polymerization is a reaction in
which monomers join together to form a
polymer without loss of material..
• A polymer formed by addition
polymerization is called addition polymer.
• Condensation polymerization is a reaction
in which monomers join together to form a
polymer with loss of material .
• A polymer formed by condensation
polymerization is called condensation
polymer.
 ADDITION POLYMERS
 
Addition polymers are made from
alkenes(unsaturated monomers).
Monomer polymer Repeat unit uses
H H To make
\ ̸ H H H H plastic bags,
C= C ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ plates, cups,
̸ \ — C — C — —C — C — films, toys,
H H | ǀ pipes and lids
ethene H H n ǀ ǀ
polyethene H H
 H H To make water
\ ̸ H H H H pipes,
C=C ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ waterproof
̸ \ —C — C— —C — C— sheets, and
H Cl ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ electrical
Ethenechloride H Cl n H H insulators.
(vinylchloride)
Polyethenechloride
(polyvinylchloride)
H H To make
\ ̸ H H H H plastic ropes,
C =C ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ plastic wraps,
̸ \ —C — C — —C — C — batteries,
H CH3 ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ bumpers,
propene H CH3 n H CH3 syringes and
polypropene bottles
 Table
H H To make
\ ̸ H H H H furniture
C=C ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ covers, toys,
̸ \ —C — C — —C— C — insulators,
C6H5 H ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ plastic wrap
styrene C6H5 H n C6H5H and kitchen
polystyrene utensil
F F To coat
\ ̸ F F F F cookware to
C=C ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ prevent them
̸ \ —C — C— —C —C— from sticking
F F ǀ ǀ ǀ ǀ
tetrafluoroethene F Fn F F
polytetrafluoroethene
 CONDENSATION POLYMERS
 
NYLON
• Nylon is made from benzene-1,4-
dicarboxylic acid and 1,6-diaminehexane.
• Water is lost during the reaction.
structures
Nylon is a polyamide because it
consists of many amide bonds
Terylene is made from butane-1,4-
dicarboxylic acid (adipic acid) and
1,2-ethane diol(ethylene glycol)
 PROTEINS
• The monomers used to make
proteins are amino acids.
• Proteins are polyamides
since they consist of many
amide bonds
• When heated in the presence of a
concentrated sulphuric acid, proteins
break down (Hydrolysed) to amino
acids.
heat
Proteins → amino acids
acid
When heated in the presence of a
concentrated sulphuric acid, starch
breaks down to glucose molecules and
water.
heated
Starch → glucose + water
acid
 FATS
• Fats are made from gylcerol
and fatty acids.
• one molecule of glycerol
combines with three
molecules of fatty acids .
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A FAT
• When a fat is heated
together with an alkali, it
breaks down to form
glycerol and a salt.
• The salts what is known as
soap.
That is
FAT + ALKALI → SALT + GLYCEROL
The process of reacting a fat with an
alkali to form soap and glycerol is
known as saponification or
hydrolysis
 Long chain carboxylic acids

Oleic acid C17H31COOH Vegetable oil

IDENTIFYING THE PRODUCTS OF HYDROLYSIS
The process of paper
chromatography can be used to
separate and identify the products
of hydrolysis of carbohydrates and
proteins.
 Step 1
Boil the carbohydrate or protein
with hydrochloric acid so that the
hydrolysis reaction can take place.
Step 2
Place two or three spots of the
mixture on the chromatography paper
at the baseline, and label them A to C
 Step 3
• Place spots of known sugars and amino acids
on the baseline, and label them 1 to 3 .
• These will be used to identify the amino acids
and sugars in the mixtures.
Step 4
• Place the chromatography paper in the solvent.
• Watch how the solvent rises.
Step 5
• Once complete ,remove the paper and dry it.
 Step 6
• Since the products are colourless, the dried
chromatogram is treated with another chemical to
produce a coloured compound.
• Ninhydrin produces purple spots with amino acids
and resorcinol produces coloured spots with
sugars.

• Compare the positions of the unknown spots with

those of the known spots to identify the amino
acids and the sugars in the mixture
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS
  Thermoset Thermoplastic
PROPERTIES  Cross linked between the  No cross-linking:
carbon chains(so one the numerous
large molecule is formed) carbon chains only
 Low molecular weight intertwine
 Initially, the plastic is  High molecular
liquid or malleable, but weight
once it cures (sets on  Initially the plastic is
heating), it remains in a solid, but melts
permanent solid state. when heated and
can be reshaped.
Each material has
its own critical
temperature
ADVANTAGES  Harder and more  Highly
  rigid recyclable
   Temperature  Eco-friendly
  resistant manufacturing
   Highly flexible  Impact
   Keeps its shape resistant
 Cost-effective  Chemical
resistant
 Can be
remoulded
/reshaped
DISADVA  Cannot be  Generally
NTAGES recycled more
 Cannot be expensive
reshaped  Can melt if
 Brittle heated
   UV
radiation
can
degrade
them
EXAMPLES  Vulcanised  Polythene,
rubber, Polyvinlychlo
melamine, ride (PVC),
polyurathane Polypropene