SAMPLING DESIGN AND

INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS
 Population

• The entire group of individuals is called the

population.
• For example, a researcher may be interested
in the relation between class size (variable 1)
and academic performance (variable 2) for the
population of third-grade children.

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 Sample

• Usually, populations are so large that a

researcher cannot examine the entire group.
Therefore, a sample is selected to represent
the population in a research study. The goal is
to use the results obtained from the sample to
help answer questions about the population.

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 SAMPLING THEORY
 Sampling theory was developed to determine
mathematically the most effective way of acquiring a sample
that accurately reflect the population under study
 Sampling involves selecting a group of people or elements
from a population with which to conduct a study
 Sampling Criteria refers to the list of the characteristics
essential for membership in the target population. Inclusion
criteria are characteristics that must be present for the
elements to be included in the sample. Exclusion criteria are
exceptions to the inclusion criteria.

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 Sample denotes the selected group of people or elements
1

 Sampling frame listing of every member of a population

acquired using sampling criteria to define membership
Population/target population refers to the entire set of
individuals or elements that met the sampling criteria
 Hypothetical population assumes the presence of
population that cannot be defined according to sampling
theory rules such as sampling frame
 Elements can be a person, event, behavior, or any other
single unit of a study.

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 DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
SLOVEN’S FORMULA

n

where: n = sample size

N = population size
e = desired margin of error (percent allowance for non-
precision because of the use of the sample size instead of the
population.
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 1

Ex. A researcher would like to know the socio-economic

profile of a certain barangay with a population of 5000
adult residents. If he will use 5% margin of error, how many
residents will he take into his sample?
n
n
n
n n = 370.37 or 370 (sample size)

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 SAMPLING PLANS
Describes the strategies that will be used to obtain a sample for the
study
 Plan is developed to enhance representativeness, reduce systematic
bias, and decrease the sampling error.
 Two sampling methods:
1. Probability (Random) Sampling
2. Nonprobability (Nonrandom) Sampling

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 PROBABILTY/RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS
Properties of probability/ random sampling:
a. Equiprobability - each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected and included in the sample.
b. Independence- the chance of one member being drawn
does not affect the chance of the other member.
1. Simple Random Sampling
 Lottery / fishbowl/raffle draw/ bingo or roulette wheel
 Use of Table of Random Numbers- sets of digits of
numbers are utilized to draw the sample

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 2. Systematic Sampling
1

obtain by drawing every kth item on the list of

population or sampling frame.
 the population size is divided by the desired sample
size, providing k the size of the gap between elements
selected from the list
 for example, if the population size is N = 1200 and
the desired sample size is n = 50 then k = 24, which
means that every 24th person on the list would be
included in the sample

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 3. Stratified Sampling
1

samples are obtained by proportionately or equally

dividing the population into strata that are based on the
variables of the study such as age, socio-economic
status, religion, ethnicity, etc.
For example, if the sample size is 100 and there are four
strata or groups ( such as age categories), the
researcher might plan to equally obtain 25 samples for
each group/category
 commonly used for heterogenous or homogenous
purposes

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 Stratified Samples
A stratified sample has members from each segment of a
population. This ensures that each segment from the
population is represented.

Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors

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 1

4. Cluster/Area Sampling
it is mostly applied on geographical basis.
 The population is divided into clusters/small units (such as
regions, provinces, cities or municipalities, barangays,
districts, blocks, zone, etc.) and from these cluster samples
are chosen with further use of other random sampling.
 Cluster sampling is used when simple random sampling is
prohibitive in terms of time and cost and in cases in which
the individual elements are not known
 in some case this random sampling continuous in several
stages which is referred as multistage sampling

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 Cluster Samples
A cluster sample has all members from randomly selected
segments of a population. This is used when the
population falls into naturally occurring subgroups.

All members
in each
selected
group are
used.

The city of Clarksville divided into city

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 NONPROBABITY/NONRANDOM
SAMPLING METHOD
Not every element of the population has an opportunity to
be included in the sample
1. Incidental/Accidental/Convenience Sampling
 applied to those samples which are taken because they
are the most available or they happened to be at the right
place at the right time
2. Quota Sampling
> Same as convenient sampling but with added feature of
stratified sampling whereby it includes elements that are
likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample

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 1

3. Purposive/Judgmental Sampling
Conscious selection individuals as samples according
to the purposes/criteria, typical situations or subjects
or characteristics set and identified by the researcher
as his control.
4. Network or Snowball Sampling
Used to locate samples that are difficult or impossible
to obtain in other ways
Takes advantage of social network and the fact that
friends tend to have characteristics in common

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 STATISTICS
Science that deals with the collection, organization,
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data in order to
be able to draw judgment or conclusions that help in the
decision-making process.

Science for developing methods to effectively derive

information from numerical data

Body of methods use to assemble, describe and analyze

numerical data pertaining to various aspect of social life

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 IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS
1. Statistics permits the most objective, definite and
precise description of a research data.
2. Enables the researcher to summarize result in a
meaningful and convenient form.
3. Guides the researcher in drawing general conclusions
according to accepted rules
4. Establishes inferences for the population.
5. Enables the researcher to predict “how much” of a
thing will happen under condition he knows and has
measured.

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 1

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 GDP
• The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Philippines was worth 313.60
billion US dollars in 2017. The GDP value of Philippines represents
0.51 percent of the world economy. GDP in Philippines averaged
77.31 USD Billion from 1960 until 2017, reaching an all time high of
313.60 USD Billion in 2017 and a record low of 4.40 USD Billion in
1962.

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 DIVISIONS OF STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE (DEDUCTIVE) STATISTICS- methods that
are concerned with collecting and describing a set of
data to yield meaningful information. (measures of
central tendency, point of measures, measures of
variability, kurtosis and skewness)
2. INFERENTIAL (INDUCTIVE) STATISTICS- methods that are
concerned with the analysis of a subset or sample of a
population leading to prediction, inference or
generalization about the entire set of data.
(correlation, z-test, t-test, F-test(ANOVA), chi-square,
Kruskal-Wallis, Friedman test etc.)

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 Statistics: What’s What?

• Descriptive • Comparative
objectives/ objectives/
research questions: hypotheses

– Descriptive – Inferential Statistics

statistics
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 Descriptive Statistics

• Number • Variability
• Frequency Count • Variance and
• Percentage standard deviation
• Deciles and • Graphs
quartiles • Normal Curve
• Measures of
Central Tendency
(Mean, Midpoint,
Mode)
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 1

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 Statistics
• Powerful tools… we must use them for
good.
– Be sure our data is valid and reliable
– Be sure we have the right type of data
– Be sure statistical tests are applied
appropriately
– Be sure the results are interpreted correctly
– Remember… numbers may not lie, but people
can
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 ERROR
• Even with probability samples, there is a possibility that the statistics
we obtain do not accurately reflect the population.
• Sampling Error
• Inadequate sampling frame, low response rate, coverage (some people in
population not given a chance of selection)
• Non-Sampling Error
• Problems with transcribing and coding data; observer/ instrument error;
misrepresentation as error.

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 TYPES OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
1. PARAMETRIC- refers to tests that are used when the data or the
population is assumed to be normally distributed. Applied to both
interval and ratio scaled data.
2. NON-PARAMETRIC- used if data are either nominal or ordinal. It is
called distribution free statistics because they do not rest on the
more stringent assumption of normally distributed population .

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 Notation
• The individual measurements or scores obtained for
a research participant will be identified by the letter
X (or X and Y if there are multiple scores for each
individual).
• The number of scores in a data set will be identified
by N for a population or n for a sample.
• Summing a set of values is a common operation in
statistics and has its own notation. The Greek letter
sigma, Σ, will be used to stand for "the sum of." For
example, ΣX identifies the sum of the scores.

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 Order of Operations
1. All calculations within parentheses are done
first.
2. Squaring or raising to other exponents is
done second.
3. Multiplying, and dividing are done third, and
should be completed in order from left to
right.
4. Summation with the Σ notation is done next.
5. Any additional adding and subtracting is
done last and should be completed in order
from left to right.
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