INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Metallurgical Engineering Lecture

Series
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 Free atom is composed of three elementary
particles:
 protons – 1.60 x 10-19 C charge magnitude
 1.6783 x 10-24 g
 electrons 1.60 x 10-19 C charge magnitude
 9.11 x 10-28 g
 neutrons
 1.675 x 10-24 C charge magnitude
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
An atom is composed of nucleus (proton + neutron)
encircled by orbiting electron
Proton and neutron are called nucleons.

 Atomic Number- number of protons in the nucleus

-number of the element’s place in the periodic table
-represented as Z
-for neutral atom: number of protons=number of
electrons
 Atomic Mass- sum of the mass of the proton and
neutron
-represented as A
Configuration: A
zM
N
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 Isotopes – atoms of the same element but
having different atomic masses due to
variation in number of neutrons
e.g. Hydrogen has 3 isotopes
1
1H , 2
1H, 3
1H

 Atomic Weight – weighted average of the

atomic masses of the atoms (most common
isotope of carbon) naturally occurring
isotope
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 e.g. What is the atomic weight of Ar given
the ff percent abundance?
99.60% 40Ar mass is 39.962 amu
0.337% 36Ar mass is 35.968 amu
0.063% 38Ar mass is 37.963 amu
Solution:
Atomic weight = (99.60% x 39.962 amu) +
(0.337% x 35.968 amu)+ (0.063% x
37.963 amu)
=39.947 amu
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 amu per atom = atomic mass unit
 1/12 of the atomic mass of the most
common isotope of C
 Grams per mole – (mole) the
quantity of a substance corresponding
to 6.023x 1023 (Avogadro’s number)
atoms/ molecules/ ions
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 Atomic Models:
 Bohr Model
 -QUANTIZED ORBITALS (description in terms of
positions and energy)
 -electrons may jump to a higher or lower energy level
 higher: absorption of energy (electromagnetic radiation
equal to the difference in the energy levels of the orbit)
 Lower: emission of energy (emission of phonon)
 Wave Mechanical Model
 the position of an electron is described by a
probability
 wave function or equation
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 FOUR QUANTUM
NUMBERS (specify
the energy or state of
electrons)

 Principal Quantum
Number, n
-indicates the size of
the orbit
-may only have
positive non zero
values
-lower value of n:
more stable state
n= 1,2,3,4 …
ATOMIC STRUCTURES
 Orbital Quantum Number, l
-signifies the subshell
-can not be larger than n-1
-restricted by the principal quantum number, n: l= 0 to (n-1)
-the letters spdfg and h have also been used to signify l=
0,1,2,3,4,5. Thus the energy level corresponding to n=1 and l=0
is called the 1s level and n=2 and l=1 is called 2p level.
-s=sharp, p=principle, d=diffuse, f=fundamental
 Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
-determines the number of energy states for each subshell
-related to the component of the angular momentum in a
specified direction
-can have values from +l to –l including zero
 Spin Quantum Number, ms
-related to the spin of the electron about its own axis
-can only have a value of +1/2 or -1/2
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS,
LIQUIDS AND SOLUTIONS
 Matter- anything that occupies space, displays a
property known as mass, and possesses inertia.
 Composition- refers to the parts or components of a
sample of matter and their relative proportions.
 Properties- qualities or attributes that we can use to
distinguish one sample of matter from others.
 Physical Properties- one that a sample of matter
displays without changing its composition
(malleability, ductility)
 Chemical Properties- ability or inability of a sample
of matter to undergo a change in composition under
stated conditions (combustion)
 Element- substance that is made up of single type of atom.
 Compounds- substances in which atoms of different elements are
combined with one another.
The composition and properties of an element or compound are uniform
throughout a given sample and from one sample to another.
 Molecule- smallest entity having the same proportions of the constituent
atoms as does the compound as a whole.
 Solutions- or homogeneous mixtures, are uniform in composition and
properties throughout a given sample, but the composition and properties
may vary from one another.
 Heterogeneous mixtures- components separate into distinct regions,
thus composition and physical properties vary from one part of the mixture
to another.
A mixture can be separated into its components by appropriate physical
changes.
A chemical compound retains its identity during physical changes, but it can be
decomposed into its constituent elements by chemical changes.
 States of Matter
 Solid- atoms or molecules are in close contact,
sometimes in a highly organized arrangement
called crystal.
 Liquid- atoms or molecules are usually
separated by greater distances than in a solid,
movement of atoms gives a liquid its distinctive
property- the ability to flow, covering the bottom
and assuming the shape of its container.
 Gas- distances among atoms or molecules are
much greater than liquid. A gas always expands
to fill its container.
 Law of Conservation of Mass
 The total mass of substances present after a
chemical reaction is the same as the total mass
of substances before the reaction.
 Matter can not be created nor destroyed in
a chemical reaction.
 Law of Constant Composition or
Definite Proportions
 All samples of a compound have the same
composition- the same proportions by mass of
the constituent elements.
 Potential Well
Concept
 at large
distances,
interactions are
negligible
 as two atoms
approach each
other, two forces
develop; a
repulsive force, Fr
and an attractive
force, Fa
  when FN = 0 :
 equilibrium state exists; the centers
of two atoms will remain separated
by the equilibrium spacing r0
 :once equilibrium is attained, two
atoms will counteract any attempt
to separate them
 :for most atoms equilibrium
distance r0 ≈ 0.3nm (3Å)
 at r0
 :potential energy is minimum
r (potential well)
E   FN dr  :Bonding energy, E0 represents the

energy that would be required to
r r
separate two atoms that are
E   FA dr   FR dr chemically bonded
 

E  E A  ER
 Material Properties Depending on E­0, Curve Shape
and Bonding Type
 Melting Temperature
 -TM is larger if E0is larger
 -solid substances are formed for large bonding energies
 gaseous state have low bonding energies
 Liquid substances have intermediate bonding energies
 -large E0 materials are more difficult to melt
 Hardness
 -influenced by the height of the total force or sum curve
 -force gives the stress required to separate the atoms
 -larger interatomic forces of attraction imply deeper wells
 -materials with high melting points are the harder material
 e.g. Diamond, Al2O3 TiC
 exceptions: materials with more than one type of bonding
 Modulus of Elasticity
 -related to the slope of the FA+FR curve where FN is
zero
 -slopes for a relatively stiff material is steep (slope at
r=r­0) shallower slopes for more flexible materials
 Thermal Expansion
 -a deep, narrow trough (large bonding energies)
correlates with a low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Conductivity of Materials
 -electrical conductivity is dependent on the nature of
atomic bonds
 -ionically and covalently bonded materials are poor
conductors (electrons are not free to leave their host
atoms)
 -thermal conductivity is high in materials with metallic
bonds (delocalized electrons are efficient carriers of
thermal as well as electrical energy)
BONDING AND PERIODICITY
TYPES OF ATOMIC BONDING IN
MATERIALS
 PRIMARY BONDING

 -chemical in nature
 -arises from the tendency of the atoms
to assume stable electron structures by
completely filling the outermost shell
 Metallic Bonding
 Metals and their alloys
 Covalent Bonding
 CH4, carbon, H2, Cl2, H2O, F2, HNO3,
HF
 Ionic Bonding
 Metallic+non metallic (NaCl)
 SECONDARY BONDING
 -physical in nature and generally weaker than
the primary ones
 Van der Waals Bonding
 inert gases, between molecules that are
covalently bonded
 secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or
molecular dipole
 the two dipoles experience a coulombic force
of attraction
  Fluctuating Induced dipole bonds
 -electrically symmetric atoms or
Atomic nucleus molecules experience a short-lived
fluctuations whereby electrons might
shift away from positive nucleus in one
direction inducing a local negative
Electron cloud charge in that spot
 -this induced dipole gets attracted to
+ - one another in a weak type bond
resulting to low melting and boiling
temperatures
 -e.g. H2 and Cl2
 Polar Molecule Induced Dipole
 permanent dipole bonds can exist
between molecules like HCl.
 This molecule gets attracted with other
such molecules
 Hydrogen Bonding
 special type of secondary bonding
 hydrogen atom is shared between two strongly
electronegative atoms such as N, O, F or Cl
 exists in compounds such as HF, H2O and NH3
 hydrogen: positively charged end attracting the
negative end of an adjacent molecule
 strongest secondary bonding and is responsible
for relatively high melting temperature (like for
water)
 Pauli Exclusion Principle:
 -determines the manner in which the states are filled
 -each electron state can hold no more than 2 electrons, which
must have opposite spins
 Ground state – when electrons occupy the lowest possible
energies
 Electronic configuration- represents the manner in which
states are occupied
 Valence electrons- electrons that occupy the outermost shell
 -responsible for bonding
 -most chemical and physical properties of elements are based
on valence electrons
 Stable Electron configuration- states within the outermost
or valence electron shell are completely filled
 -noble gases (Ne, Ar, Kr, He)
 -unreactive
 -filled sp
 The Periodic Table
 introduced by a Russian scientist D. Mendeleev in 1869
 elements are classified according to electron configuration
 elements of any given family, which show a similarity in
chemical properties, are arranged in the same column or group
 trends:
 the metallic property elements increases from right to left of a
period
 the metallic property also increases from top to bottom of a
group
 elements along a same group have the same number of valence
electrons
 transition metals have very similar properties; thus a wide
variety of alloys can be produced
 electropositive elements: readily give up their valence electrons
 electronegative elements: readily accept electrons
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
(OXIDATION AND REDUCTION)
 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND THEIR FORMULAS
 Ionic Compounds- combination of metals and nonmetals.
The charge (oxidation states) of the cation or anion can be
deduced from the group to which an element belongs.
 The oxidation state of an individual atom in a free element is 0.
 The total oxidation states of all atoms in
 A neutral species is 0
 An ion is equal to the charge on the ion
 In their compounds, Group IA metals have an OS of +1 and
the Group2A metals have an OS of +2.
 In its compounds, the OS of fluorine is -1
 In its compounds, hydrogen has an OS of +1, except when H is
bonded to metals.
 In its compounds, oxygen has an OS of -2, except where O
atoms are bonded to one another.
 In their binary compounds with metals, the Group 7A elements
have an OS of -1; the Group 6A elements ,-2, and the Group
5A elements, -3.
 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Binary Compounds
 One metal + One nonmetal: write the name of the metal
followed by the name of the nonmetal, modified to end in “ide”
(NaCl: sodium chloride)
 2 Non metals: write the element with the positive oxidation
state first, include prefixes such as mono, di, tri, tetra, penta,
hexa (N­2O3: dinitrogen trioxide)
 Binary Acids: compounds of H with other nonmetal atoms,
use the prefix “hydro” followed by other nonmetal name
modified to an “ic” ending. (HF: hydrofluoric acid)
 Polyatomic Ions
 Cl, N, P, S: form a series of oxoanions containing different
numbers of oxygen atoms. Their names are related to the
oxidation state of the nonmetal atom to which O atoms are
bonded: (ClO- : Hypochloriite; ClO2- :chlorite; ClO3- :
chlorate; ClO4- : perchlorate)
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
 Chemical reaction- a process in which one set of substances
called reactants are converted to a new set of substances
called products
 - physical evidences: color change, formation of solid,
evolution of gas, evolution or absrorption of heat.
 Chemical equation- formulas of the reactants are written on
the left side of the equation and formulas of the products are
written on the right. The two sides of the equation are joined
by an arrow or an equal sign.
 - substitute chemical formulas for names and balance the
formula expression to obtain a chemical equation.
 - in a balanced equation the total number of atoms of each
element is the same on both sides.
 - the coefficients required to balance a chemical equation are
called stoichiometric coefficients.
 Stoichiometric factor- relates the amounts of any two
substances involved in a chemical reaction on a mole basis.
 a. How many moles of O2 are
produced from the decomposition f
1.76 moles of potassium chlorate?
 (2 KClO3 = 2KCl + 3 O2)

 b. How many moles of Ag are

produced in the decomposition of
1.kg silver (1) dioxide?
 (2 Ag2O = 4 Ag + O2)
 Molarity, amount of solutein moles 
M
volume of solution in liters 
 Solution Dilution: Mi x Vi = Mf x Vf
 Solvent- present in greatest quantity, determines
whether the solution exists as solid, liquid or gas
 Solute- part that is dissolved in the solvent
 Mole fraction, Xi­- fraction of all the molecule in a
solution
amount of component iin moles 
Xi 
total amount of all solution components in moles
 The sum of all mole fractions of all the solution
component is 1
 Molality, m- a concentraton unit that is independent
of temperature and also proportional to mole fraction
in dilute solutions
amount of solutein moles 
m
mass of solvent in kg 
 Solubility- of solute in the given solvent is the
concentration of the saturated solution; increase with
increasing temperature.
 When dissolving and crystallization occur at the
same rate, the solution is in a state of dynamic
equilibrium, the solution is said to be saturated.
When a solute completely dissolves, the solution is
unsaturated. When the quantity of solute is greater
than in a normal saturated solution, the solution is
said to be supersaturated.
 THE NATURE OF AQUEOUS SOLUTION
 Non electrolyte- a substance that is not ionized and
the solution does not conduct electric current
 Strong electrolyte- substance that is completely
ionized in aqueous solution, and the solution is a
good electrical conductor
 Weak electrolyte- the concentration of ions in
solution is low, partially ionized in aqueous solution,
and the solution is only a fair conductor of electricity.
 -the reaction does not go into completion, the chemical
reaction is reversible
 All soluble ionic compounds and only a few
molecular compounds are strong electrolytes
 Most molecular compounds are either
nonelectrolytes or weak electrolytes.
 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
 Precipitation reactions- occur when certain cations and
anions combine to produce an insoluble ionic solid called
precipitate
 Compounds that are mostly soluble:
 Those of the alkali metals (Group 1A and the ammonium ion)
 Nitrates and acetates
 Chlorides, bromides, and iodides (those of Pb 2+, Ag+ and Hg2+
are insoluble)
 Sulfates (those of Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, and Hg22+ are insoluble)
 Compounds that are mostly insoluble:
 Hydroxides and sulfides (Group 1A metals are soluble, and
sulfides of Group 2A metals are soluble, hydroxides of Ca 2+,
Sr2+ and Ba2+ are slightly soluble)
 Carbonates phosphates (Group 1A metals are soluble)
 ACID-BASE REACTIONS
 Acids- sour taste, able to react with a
variety of metals and carbonate
minerals, blue litmus paper turns to red
 - substances that provide hydrogen ions
(H+) in aqueous solution
 Strong Acid- molecular compounds that
are completely ionized in aqueous solutions
 (HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4)
 Weak Acid- acids that are incompletely
ionized in aqueous solution (acetic acid)
 Bases- bitter taste, slippery feel, turns red
litmus paper to blue
 - substances capable of providing hydroxide
ions (OH­-) in aqueous solutions.
 Strong Base- substance that dissociates
completely in water solution and yields OH-
ions; hydroxides of Group 1A and some Group
2A metals (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH,
Ca(OH)2 )
 Weak Base- incompletely ionized in aqueous
solution; most basic substances are weak bases
 Neutralization- an acid and base react to form
water and an aqueous solution of an ionic
compound called salt.
 OXIDATION-REDUCTION
 Oxidation- the oxidation state of some element
increases, and the electrons appear on the right side
of a half-equation
 Reducing Agent: contains element whose oxidation
state increases in redox reaction
 LEORA: Lose Electron Oxidation Reducing Agent
 Reduction- the oxidation state of some element
decreases, electron appears appear on the left side of
a half-equation
 Oxidizing Agent: contains element whose oxidation
state decreases in redox reaction
 GEROA: Gain Electron Reduction Oxidizing Agent
 Oxidation and reduction half-reactions must
always occur together, and the total
number of electrons associated with the
oxidation must equal the total number
associated with reduction.
 e.g. Reaction of iron with hydrochloric acid
 Balancing Redox Reactions in Acidic Medium (**
in basic medium**)
 Divide the equation into an oxidation half-reaction
and a reduction half-reaction
 Balance these
 Balance the elements other than H and O
 Balance the O by adding H2O
 Balance the H by adding H+
 Balance the charge by adding e-
 Multiply each half-reaction by an integer such that
the number of e- lost in one equals the number
gained in the other
 Combine the half-reactions and cancel
 **Add OH- to each side until all H+ is gone and then
cancel again**