DC-DC PWM Converters

Lecture Note 5
DC Choppers. The converters that achieve the
voltage regulation by varying the on–off or time
duty ratio of the switching element using a control
technique called Pulse Width Modulation PWM.
Objective – to efficiently reduce DC voltage !
The DC equivalent of an AC transformer

Iin Iout

+ +
DC−DC
Vin Converter Vout
− −

Lossless objective: Pin = Pout, which means that VinIin = VoutIout and

Vout I in

Vin I out
3
Linear Conversion
R1 The load

+ +

Vin R2 Vout
− −
R2
Vout  Vin 
R1  R2
R2 Vout
 
R1  R2 Vin

If Vin = 39V, and Vout = 13V, efficiency η is only 0.33

Unacceptable except in very low power applications 4

Linear Conversion

From what explained above, it is clear that a DC

conversion by a voltage divider presents some
drawbacks:
 A DC voltage higher than the input voltage cannot be
obtained;
 The output voltage depends on the load, in general;
 The efficiency is very poor.
Linear Conversion

the output voltage is given by:

• only a step down conversion is possible

• the efficiency remains low because all the power supplied by the source that it
is not utilized by the load have to be dissipated by the power BJT.
Switching Conversion

𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡 𝑜𝑛 Duty Cycle
𝑉 𝑜𝐴𝑉 =𝑉 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝑖𝑛 =𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝐷
𝑡 𝑜𝑛 +𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑇
Switching Conversion
Transistor is operated in switched-mode:
 Switch closed: Fully on (saturated)
 Switch opened: Fully off (cut-off)

 When switch is open, no current flow in it

 When switch is closed no voltage drop across it.

Since P=V.I, no losses occurs in the switch.

 Power is 100% transferred from source to load.
 Power loss is zero (for ideal switch):

 Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC converters

 Pulse Width Modulation
 The output DC voltage of DC chopper can be varied by controlling
the width period (ton)

 with constant switching/chopping frequency fs. This method is

called PWM method
Pulse Width Modulation
Choppers Types

Two of the most popular categories of DC-DC converters are:

 Transformerless DC-DC Converters
 Insulated DC-DC Converters.
Three basic types of non-isolated DC–DC converters are
 Step-down converter
 Step-up converter
 Step-up-down converter
DC−DC Buck Converter
Step-Down Converter
Buck Chopper

12
On-State

Off-State

13
Switch is turned on (closed)

• Diode is reversed biased.

• Switch conducts inductor current
• This results in positive inductor
voltage, i.e:

• It causes linear
increase in the
inductor current
14
Switch turned off (opened)

• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL continues to
flow.
• Diode is forward biased
• Current now flows
(freewheeling) through the
diode.
• The inductor voltage can be
derived as: 15
Analysis

16
Analysis

17
Steady-state Operation
+ L -
Realization using
iL(t) ic(t)
VL(t)
power MOSFET
D1 R
Vg +- +
and diode t
DTs Ts

Unstable

Steady-state
18
Since the average voltage across L is zero !

VLavg  D  Vin  Vout   1  D   Vout   0

DVin  D  Vout  Vout  D  Vout

The input/output equation becomes Vout  DVin

From power balance, Vin I in  Vout I out , so

I in Note – even though iin is not constant

I out  (i.e., iin has harmonics), the input power is
D
still simply Vin • Iin because Vin has 19
no
harmonics
Output Voltage Ripple

20
Output Voltage
Ripple

21
Examine the inductor current
 Examine the inductor current

diL Vin  Vout

Switch closed, v L  Vin  Vout , 
dt L

diL  Vout
Switch open, vL  Vout , 
dt L

 Vout From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway

iL A / sec
L
Imax between Imax and Imin
Iavg = Iout Vin  Vout ΔI Periodic – finishes
A / sec a period where it
Imin L
started

DT (1 − D)T

T 23
 Examine the inductor current

 Vout
iL A / sec
L
Imax

Vin  Vout ΔI Periodic – finishes

A / sec a period where it
Imin L
started

DT (1 − D)T

Taking the derivative of above equation with respect to D and setting it to zero shows that ΔI is maximum
when D = 0.5
 Examine the inductor current

The boundary of continuous conduction is when ΔiLmin = 0, as shown below:

diL  Vout
vL  Vout , 
dt L

The maximum required value of Lboundary occurs when D → 0. Therefore, the value of L will guarantee
CCM for all D.
 Effect of raising and lowering L while
holding Vin, Vout, Iout and f constant

iL
Lower L

Raise L

• Lowering L increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward

discontinuous operation 26
 Effect of raising and lowering f while
holding Vin, Vout, Iout, and L constant

iL

Lower f

Raise f

• Slopes of iL are unchanged

• Lowering f increases ΔI and moves the circuit toward

discontinuous operation
27
the rms value inductor current:

i (t )
the ripple
Imax  Imin 
i (t )
Imax 0
I avg
I min
= +
the minimum value
Imin

I avg 
Imax  Imin 
2 0
the rms value inductor current:
2
I rms 
 Avg i (t )  I min 2 
2
I rms 
 Avg i2 (t )  2i (t )  I min  I min
2

2
I rms  
 Avg i2 (t )  2 I min  Avg  i (t ) I min
2

2
I rms 
I max  I min 2
 2I 
I max  I min   I 2
min min
3 2

Define I PP  I max  I min

2
2 I PP 2
I rms   I min I PP  I min
3
the rms value inductor current:
I
Recognize that I min  I avg  PP
2

2 2
2 I PP  I   I 
I rms    I avg  PP  I PP   I avg  PP 
3  2   2 

2 2 2
2 I PP I PP 2 I PP
I rms   I avg I PP   I avg  I avg I PP 
3 2 4

2 2 I avg 
I max  I min 
2
I rms 
I PP

I PP 2
 I avg i (t ) 2
3 4

I avg I PP  I max  I min

2
2 2 I PP
I rms  I avg 
12

Or
Component Ratings

Inductor current rating

Capacitor current rating

MOSFET and diode currents ratings

Voltage ratings
Inductor current rating

2
I Lrms 2
 I avg 
1 2
12
2
I pp  I out 
1
12
 
I 2

Max impact of ΔI on the rms current occurs at the boundary of

continuous/discontinuous conduction, where ΔI =2Iout
iL
2Iout
Iavg = Iout ΔI
0

1
2
I Lrms 2
 I out  2I out 2  4 I out
2
12 3
Use max
2
I Lrms  I out
3 32
Capacitor current rating
iL Iout

L
C
(iL – Iout)

iC = (iL – Iout) Note – raising f or L, which lowers

Iout ΔI, reduces the capacitor current
0
ΔI
−Iout

Max rms current occurs at the boundary of continuous/discontinuous

conduction, where ΔI =2Iout Use max

1 I out
2
I Crms 2
 I avg  2 I out 2  02  1 I out
2
I Crms 
12 3 3

33
MOSFET and diode currents and current ratings
iL Iout
iin

L
C
(iL – Iout)

2Iout
Iout
0

2Iout
Iout
0

Use max

2
Take worst case D for each I rms  I out
3 34
 Voltage ratings
iin iL Iout
C sees Vout
Switch Closed L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

Diode sees Vin

MOSFET sees Vin

iL Iout

Switch Open L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

• Diode and MOSFET, use 2Vin

35

• Capacitor, use 1.5Vout

 There is a 3rd state – discontinuous ! 36

Iout
MOSFET

L +
Vin C Vout
DIODE Iout –

• Occurs for light loads, or low operating frequencies,

vL = (Vin – Vout)
where the inductor current eventually hits zero during
the switch-open state Switch
closed
• The diode opens to prevent backward current flow
• The small capacitances of the MOSFET and diode, vL = –Vout
acting in parallel with each other as a net parasitic
Switch open
capacitance, interact with L to produce an oscillation
• The output C is in series with the net parasitic
capacitance, but C is so large that it can be ignored in
the oscillation phenomenon

 650kHz. With L = 100µH, this corresponds

to net parasitic C = 0.6nF
Impedance matching !

Iin Iout = Iin / D

+ +
DC−DC Buck V
Source Converter Vout = DVin Rload  out
Vin I out
− −

Iin

+
Equivalent from Requiv
Vin source perspective
−
Vout So, the buck converter
V D Vout R makes the load
Requiv  in    load resistance look 37larger
I in I out  D I out  D 2 D2 to the source
Example 1: Step-Down DC-DC Converter supplied by 230V DC voltage. The load resistance
equal to10Ω. Voltage drop across the chopper when it is ON equal to 2V. For a duty cycle of
0.4, calculate:
a) Average and RMS values of output voltage
b) Power delivered to the load and
c) Chopper efficiency.
DC−DC Boost Converter
Step-Down Converter
Boost Chopper

39
 + vL –
iL Iout
iin
Buck converter
L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

+ vL –
iL Iout
Boost converter iin
L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–
Boost (step-up) converter

41
Boost Analysis: Switch Closed

42
Boost Analysis: Switch Opened

43
Average Output voltage Expression

The net energy in the inductor is should be equal to zero over T period

Average voltage across inductor is 0

Vs

VLavg  ton  Vs  toff  Vs  Vout   0 ton toff

Vs  Vo

Vout  toff  Vs toff  Vs ton

T
Vout  Vs T
toff Vout  Vs
T  ton
T Vs
ton  DT Vout  Vs Vout 
T  DT 1 D
Output Characteristics

Vs Vo Infinity
Vout 
1 D

Vs

D
0 1
Output Characteristics

Io

Pout  Ps Is

Vout  I out  Vs  I s
Vs
 I out  Vs  I s
(1  D)
I out  (1  D) I s D
0 1
As 1 → D , the width of the ΔQ area increases to fill almost the entire
cycle, and the maximum peak-to-peak ripple becomes

Q I out  T I out
V   
C C Cf

47
 Examine the inductor current

diL Vin
Switch closed, vL  Vin , 
dt L

diL Vin  Vout

Switch open, vL  Vin  Vout , 
dt L

Iavg = Iin is half way between

iL Vin  Vout
A / sec
L Imax and Imin
Imax
Iavg = Iin Vin ΔI
A / sec
Imin L

DT (1 − D)T

T 48
Continuous current in L
Vin  Vout
A / sec
L
iL
2Iin

Iavg = Iin
0
(1 − D)T

Vin  1 
 Vin Vin   11  D 
V V 1 D 
2 I in  out in  1  D T  1  D  1  D T 
Lboundary Lboundary Lboundary f

Vin D V D
2 I in  , Lboundary  in
Lboundary f 2 I in f

Then, considering the worst case (i.e., D → 1),

use max
V
L  in guarantees continuous conduction
2 I in f 49

use min
Inductor current rating

2
I Lrms 2
 I avg 
1 2
12
2
I pp  I in 
1
12
 
I 2

Max impact of ΔI on the rms current occurs at the boundary of

continuous/discontinuous conduction, where ΔI =2Iin
iL
2Iin
Iavg = Iin ΔI
0

1
2
I Lrms 2
 I in  2I in 2  4 I in2
12 3
Use max
2
I Lrms  I in
3 50
MOSFET and diode currents ratings
+ vL –
iL iD Iout
iin
L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

2Iin

2Iin

0
Use max
2
Take worst case D for each I rms  I in
3 51
Capacitor current and current rating
iL iD Iout
iin
L +
Vin C Vout
iC
–

iC = (iD – Iout)
2Iin −Iout

0
−Iout

Max rms current occurs at the boundary of continuous/discontinuous

conduction, where ΔI =2Iout
Use max

I Crms  I out 52
 Voltage ratings

Diode sees Vout

iL Iout
iin
C sees Vout
L +
Vin C Vout
–

iL Iout
iin
L +
Vin C Vout
–
MOSFET sees Vout

• Diode and MOSFET, use 2Vout

53

• Capacitor, use 1.5Vout

Impedance matching
I out  1  D I in
Iin

+ +
DC−DC Boost Vin V
Source Vout  Rload  out
Vin Converter 1 D I out
− −

Iin

+
Equivalent from
Requiv
Vin source perspective
−

V
Requiv  in 
1  D Vout  1  D 2 Vout  1  D 2 R
I out load
I in I out 54
1 D
Example 2: A boost chopper has input voltage of 20 V with switching frequency
equal to 1 kHz. Calculate:
• The required duty cycle that can be applied to the switch to boost the input
voltage to 60V.
• The ON and OFF period for the constant switching frequency operation.
• Output current if the resistance load equal to 10 Ω.
• Average input inductor current.
• The maximum and minimum currents via the input inductor if the inductance is
10mH.