DIGITAL IMAGE

PROCESSING

IMAGE
COMPRESSION
 Introduction
 Image Compression: It is the Art & Science of reducing
the amount of data required to represent an image.

 It is the most useful and commercially successful

technologies in the field of Digital Image Processing.

 The number of images compressed and decompressed daily

is innumerable.
 Introduction
 To understand the need for compact image
representation, consider the amount of data required
to
represent a 2 hour Standard Definition (SD) using 720 x 480
x 24 bit pixel arrays.

 A video is a sequence of video frames where each frame is

a full color still image.

 Because video player must display the frames sequentially

at rates near 30fps, SD video data must be accessed at

30fps x (720x480)ppf x 3bpp = 31,104,000

bps fps – frames per second,

ppf – pixels per frame,
 Introduction
Thus a 2 hour movie consists of
31,104,000 bps x (602) sph x 2 hrs ≈ 2.24 x 1011 bytes.
OR
224GB of data
sph = second per hour

 Twenty seven 8.5GB dual layer DVDs are needed to store

it.

 To put a 2hr movie on a single DVD, each frame must

be compressed by a factor of around 26.3.

 The compression must be even higher for HD, where

image
resolution reach 1920 x 1080 x 24 bits/image.
 Introduction
 Web page images & High-resolution digital camera
photos also are also compressed to save storage space
& reduce transmission time.
 Residential Internet connection delivers data at speeds
ranging from 56kbps (conventional phone line) to more
than 12mbps (broadband).
 Time required to transmit a small 128 x 128 x 24 bit full
color image over this range of speed is from 7.0 to 0.03
sec.
 Compression can reduce the transmission time by a factor
of around 2 to 10 or more.
 Similarly, number of uncompressed full color images that an
8 Megapixel digital camera can store on a 1GB Memory card
can be increased.
 Introduction
 Along with these applications , image compression plays
an important role in many other areas including:
 Fundamentals
 Data Compression: It refers to the process of reducing
the amount of data required to represent a given
quantity of information.

Data
Vs

Inform
ation
 Data and Information are not the same thing; data are
the means by which information is conveyed.

 Because various amount of data can be used to represent

the same amount of information, representations that
Fundamentals
 Fundamentals
 Let b & b’ denote the number of bits in two
representations of the same information, the relative data
redundancy R of the representation with b bits is

• R = 1 – (1/C);
where, C commonly called the compression ratio,
is defined as
• C = b / b’

 If C = 10 (or 10:1), for larger representation has 10 bits of

data for every 1 bit of data in smaller representation.

So, R = 0.9, indicating that 90% of its data is redundant.

 Fundamentals
 2D intensity arrays suffers from 3 principal types of
data redundancies:

1) Coding redundancy: A code is a system of symbols

used to
represent a body of information or sets of events.

 Each piece of event is assigned a code word (code

symbol). The number of symbols in each code word is its
length.

 The 8-bit codes that are used to represent the intensities in

most 2D intensity arrays contain more bits than are needed
to represent the intensities.
 Fundamentals
2) Spatial & Temporal redundancy:

 Because the pixels of most 2D intensity arrays are

correlated spatially, information is replicated unnecessarily.
 In video sequence, temporally correlated pixels also
duplicate information.

3) Irrelevant Information:

 Most 2D intensity arrays contain information that is ignored

by the human visual system. It is redundant in the sense
that it is not used.
 Fundamentals
1) Coding Redundancy:
 Assume a discrete random variable rk in interval [0 –
L-1] is used to represent the intensities of an M x N
image.
 Also the each rk occurs with probability pr (rk).
 pr(rk) = nk / MN k = 0, 1, 2, ………….L-1 -----(a)
 Where, L is no. of intensity values &
nk is no. of times kth intensity appears in the image.

If no. of bits used to represent each value of rk is l(rk), then

avg no of bits required to represent each pixel is
L- 1
Lavg = Σ l(rk) pr(rk)
k=0

Thus, total no. of bits required to represent an MxN image

 Fundamentals
 If the intensities are represented using a natural m-bits
fixed length code, the RHS reduces to m bits.
 i.e. Lavg = m where m is substituted for l(rk).
 Constant m can be taken out the summation leaving only
sum of pr(rk) for 0 ≤ k ≤ L-1, which = 1.

rk pr(rk) code 1 l1(rk) code 2 l2(rk)

r87 = 87 0.25 01010111 8 01 2
r128 = 128 0.47 10000000 8 1 1
r186 = 186 0.25 11000100 8 000 3
r255 = 255 0.03 11111111 8 001 3
rk for k ≠ 87, 0 - 8 - 0
128, 186,
255
 Fundamentals
With respect to the above table, If a natural 8-bit binary code
is used to represent its 4 possible intensities, Lavg = 8, coz
l1(rk)
= 8 bits for all rk.

On the other hand, If code 2 scheme is used, the avg length

of encoded pixels is,
Lavg = 0.25(2) + 0.47(1) + 0.25(3) + 0.03(3) = 1.81 bits.
Total no. of bits rqd to represent entire image = MNLavg
= 256 x 256 x 1.81 = 118,621
Resulting compression
C = 256 x 256 x 8 / 118,621 = 8 / 1.81 ≈ 4.42
Relative redundancy
R = 1 – 1/4.42 = 0.774
Thus, 77.4% of data in original 8-bit 2D intensity array
 Fidelity Criteria
Fidelity Criteria:
• Removal of irrelevant visual information involves a loss
of real or quantitative image information.
• Since information is lost, a means of quantifying the
nature
of loss is needed.
Objective fidelity criteria Subjective fidelity criteria
 Objective fidelity criteria: When information loss can be
expressed as a mathematical function of input & output of
a compression process. Eg RMS error between 2 images.
Error between two
images e(x, y) = f’(x, y) –
f(x, y)
So, total error between
two images
 Fidelity Criteria
RMS error is given by
M-1 N-1

erms = [(1/MN)Σ Σ *f’(x, y) – f(x, y)]2]1/2

x=0 y = 0

If f’(x, y) is considered to be the sum of original image f(x, y) &

an error or noise signal e(x, y), the Mean Square SNR of
output image denoted by SNRrmscan be defined as
M-1 N-1
ΣΣ f’(x, y)2
SNRrms x=0 y = 0

= M-1 N-1

ΣΣ *f’(x, y) – f(x,
y)]2
x=0 y = 0
 Fidelity Criteria
 Subjective fidelity criteria:
• A Decompressed image is presented to a cross section
of viewers and averaging their evaluations.

• It can be done by using an absolute rating scale

Or
• By means of side by side comparisons of f(x, y) & f’(x,
y).

• Side by Side comparison can be done with a scale such

as
{-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
to represent the subjective valuations
{much worse, worse, slightly worse, the same,
slightly better, better, much better} respectively.
Image Compression Models
• The image compression system is composed of 2
distinct functional component: an encoder & a
decoder.

• Encoder performs Compression

while
• Decoder performs Decompression.

• Both operations can be performed in Software, as in case

of
Web browsers & many commercial image editing programs.

• Or in a combination of hardware & firmware, as in

DVD Players.

•
Image Compression Models
• Input image f(x,…..) is fed into the encoder, which creates
a compressed representation of input.
• It is stored for future for later use or transmitted for
storage and use at a remote location.
• When the compressed image is given to decoder,
a reconstructed output image f’(x,…..) is
generated.
• In still image applications, the encoded input and
decoder
output are f(x, y) & f’(x, y) resp.
• In video applications, they are f(x, y, t) & f’(x, y, t) where
t is time.
• If both functions are equal then the system is called
Image Compression Models

Symb
Mapper Quantizer
ol
coder

Symbol Inverse
Decode Mappe
r r
Image Compression Models
Encoding or Compression process:
Encoder is used to remove the redundancies through a series
of 3 independent operations.

Mapper: It transforms f(x,…) into a format designed to

reduce spatial and temporal redundancies.
• It is reversible
• It may / may not reduce the amount of data to
represent
image.

Ex. Run Length coding

• In video applications, mapper uses previous frames

to remove temporal redundancies.
Image Compression Models
Quantizer: It keeps irrelevant information out of
compressed representations.

• This operation is irreversible.

• It must be omitted when error free compression is

desired.

• In video applications, bit rate of encoded output is often

measured and used to adjust the operation of the
quantizer so that a predetermined average output is
maintained.

• The visual quality of the output can vary from frame to

frame as a function of image content.
Image Compression Models
Symbol Encoder: Generates a fixed or variable length code
to represent the quantizer output and maps the output
in accordance with the code.

• Shortest code words are assigned to the most frequently

occurring quantizer output values. Thus minimizing
coding redundancy.

• It is reversible.

• Upon its completion, the input image has been processed

for the removal of all 3 redundancies.
Image Compression Models
Decoding or Decompression process:

• Quantization results in irreversible loss, an inverse

quantizer block is not included in the decoder block.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Huffman Coding:
• Most popular technique for removing coding
redundancies.

• It yields smallest possible code symbol per source symbol.

Original Source Source reduction

Symbol Probability 1 2 3 4
a2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6
a6 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
a1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
a4 0.1 0.1 0.1
a3 0.06 0.1
a5 0.04
Some Basic Compression Methods
Huffman Coding:

Original Source Source

Symbol
reductionProbability Code 1 2 3 4

a2 0.4 1 0.4 1 0.4 1 0.4 1 0.6 0

a6 0.3 00 0.3 00 0. 00 0.3 00 0.4 1
3
a1 0.1 011 0.1 011 0.2 010 0.3 01
a4 0.1 0100 0.1 0100 0. 011
1
a3 0.06 01010 0.1 0101
a5 0.04 01011
Lavg = (0.4)(1) + (0.3)(2) + (0.1)(3) + (0.06)(5) + (0.04)
(5)
= 2.2 bits / pixel.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Huffman Coding:
• It is instantaneous.
• Coz each code word in a string of code symbols ca
be decoded without referencing succeeding
symbols.

• It is uniquely decodable.
• Coz any string of code symbols can be decoded by
examining individual symbols of string from left to right.

Ex. 010100111100
Some Basic Compression Methods
Huffman Coding:
• It is instantaneous.
• Coz each code word in a string of code symbols ca
be decoded without referencing succeeding
symbols.

• It is uniquely decodable.
• Coz any string of code symbols can be decoded by
examining individual symbols of string from left to right.

Ex. 01010 011 1 1 00

First valid code:
01010 – a3,
011 – a1,
Thus, completely decoding the message, we get, a3a1a2a2a6
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
It generates non block codes.
One to One correspondence between source symbols and
code words does not exist.
Instead, an entire sequence of source symbols is assigned
a single arithmetic code.
Code word defines an integer of real numbers between 0
& 1.

As No. of symbols in msg.

interval to represent it
no. of bits to represent
info Each symbol of msg size of interval in accordance with
its
probability of
occurrence.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Basic Arithmetic coding process:
5 symbol message, a1a2a3a3a4 from 4 symbol source is
coded.

Source Symbol Probability Initial Subinterval

a1 0.2 [0.0, 0.2)
a2 0.2 [0.2, 0.4)
a3 0.4 [0.4, 0.8)
a4 0.2 [0.8, 1.0)
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.062 1
4 6 4
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.0624 1
4 6
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.0624 1
4 6
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.062 1
4 6 4
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding:
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.062 1
4 6 4
Some Basic Compression Methods
Arithmetic coding: Encoding Sequence 
a1 a2 a3 a3
a4
1 0.2 0.08 0.072
0.0688 a
a4 a4 a4 a4 4

a a a a a
3 3 3 3 3

a a a a a
2 2 2 2 2
a a a a a
0 1 0 1 0.0 1 0.05 1 0.062 1
4 6 4
Some Basic Compression Methods
The final message symbol narrows to [0.06752, 0.0688).

Any number between this interval can be used to represent

the message.
Eg. 0.068

3 decimal digits are used to represent the 5 symbol message.

Some Basic Compression Methods
LZW Coding:

 LZW – Lempel-Ziv-Welch coding

 Error free compression approach that also addresses

spatial redundancies in an image.

 It assigns fixed-length code words to variable length

sequences of source symbols.

 It requires no prior knowledge of probability of occurrence

of the symbols to be encoded.
Some Basic Compression Methods
LZW Coding:

 It is conceptually very simple.

 Initially, a codebook or dictionary containing the

source symbols to be coded is constructed.

 For an 8-bit BW images, the first 256 words of

dictionary are
assigned to intensities 0, 1, 2, …., 255.
Some Basic Compression Methods
LZW Coding:
Consider the 4 x 4 8-bit image having a vertical
edge. 39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
A 512-word dictionary with following content is
assumed: Dictionary Location
Entry
0

0
1 -
.
1 -
.
Some
Currently
Basic Compression
Pixel Being Encoded Dictionary
Methods
Dictionary
Recogniz Processed Output Location Entry
ed
Sequence
39
39 39 39 256 39-39
39 126 39 257 39-126
126 126 126 258 126-126
126 39 126 259 126-39
39 39
39-39 126 256 260 39-39-126
126 126
126-126 39 258 261 126-126-39
39 39
39-39 126
39-39-126 126 260 262 39-39-126-126
126 39
126-39 39 259 263 126-39-39
39 126
39-126 126 257 264 39-126-126
126 126
Some Basic Compression Methods
Unique feature of LZW coding:

 Coding dictionary or code book is created while data

are being encoded.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Bit-plane coding:

 Another effective method to reduce interpixel

redundancies.

 Image’s bit planes are processed individually.

 Based on decomposing a multilevel (monochrome /

color) image into a series of binary images &
compressing each binary using any binary compression
method.
Bit plane decomposition:
 Gray levels of an m-bit gray level image can be
represented in form of base 2 polynomial.
Some Basic Compression Methods
 A simple method of decomposing the image into a
collection of binary image is to separate the m coefficients
of the polynomial into m-1 bit planes.

Disadvantage:

 Small changes in gray level can have significant impact on

complexity of bit planes.

Ex. If two adjacent pixels have intensity of 127 (01111111) and

128 (10000000), every bit plane will contain a
corresponding 0 to 1 (or 1 to 0) transition.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Alternate decomposition approach:
 Reduces the effect of small gray level variations.

 Requires the representation of image into m-bit gray

code.

 m-bit gray code gm-1…..g2g1g0 can be computed

from gi = ai xor ai+1 0 ≤ i ≤ m-2
gm-1 = am-1

 This code has unique property that successive code

words differ by only 1 bit position.

 Small changes in gray level are less likely to affect all m

bit planes.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Run-Length Coding:

 Standard compression approach used in facsimile (FAX).

 Basic concept is to code each contiguous group of 0’s & 1’s

encountered in L to R scan of a row by its length & to
develop a convention for determining the value of run.

 Most common approach for determining the value of run:

i) Specify value of first run of each row.
ii) To assume each row begins with a white run whose
run length may in fact be zero.
Some
•
Basic Compression Methods
Although Run length coding is in itself an effective method of
compressing an image, additional compression can be
realized by variable-length coding.
• Black & white run lengths may be coded separately using
variable-length codes.
Ex. If aj represent a black run of length j, we can estimate
its probability.
• The approximate run-length entropy of the image is:
HRL= (H0 + H1) / (L0 + L1)
• where, L0 & L1 denote average values of black & white
run lengths resp.
• Above equation also provides an estimate of the average
no. of bits per pixel required to code the run lengths in a
binary image.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Lossless predictive coding:
• Based on eliminating the interpixel redundancies of closely
spaced pixels by extracting & coding only the new
information in each pixel.

• New information: difference between the actual &

predicted value of that pixel.
Some Basic Compression Methods
•Figure shows basic component of a lossless predictive
coding system.

•It consists of an encoder & a decoder each containing an

identical predictor.
•As each successive pixel of input image f(n) is introduced
to the encoder, predictor generates its anticipated value.
Output of the predictor is then rounded to the nearest
integer
f(n)bar & used to form the difference or prediction error.
e(n) = f(n)– f(n)bar
Some Basic Compression Methods
• It is coded using a variable length to generate the
next element of the compressed data stream.

• The decoder reconstruct the fn from the received

variable-
length code words & perform the inverse operation

• f(n) = e(n) + f(n)bar

• f(n)bar is generated by prediction formed by a

linear combination of m previous pixels.
im
=
f(n)bar= round[Σ
1 αi f(n-i)] where, m – order of
round – function used to denote rounding
linear predictor
αi – for i = 1, 2, 3, ….. m are prediction
coefficients.
 Some Basic Compression
Methods
Lossy Predictive
coding:
Some Basic Compression Methods
Lossy Predictive coding:
• In this method we add a quantizer to the lossless
predictive coding model.

• It replaces the nearest integer function & is placed

between symbol encoder & point where prediction error
forms.

• It maps the prediction error into a limited range of outputs

denoted by ë(n), which establish the amount of
compression & distortion.

• In order to accommodate the insertion of the

quantization step, the error free encoder must be
altered so that the predictions by the encoder &
decoder are equivalent.
Some Basic Compression Methods
Lossy Predictive coding:

• This is accomplished by placing the predictor within a

feedback loop, where its input ƒ(n)dot is generated as
a function of past predictions & quantized errors.

ƒ(n)dot = e(n)dot + f(n)bar

• This closed loop configuration prevents error buildup at

the decoder’s output.