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Ocn 2
Ocn 2
Networks
Chapter 2
Propagation of Signals in
Optical Fiber
1
2.Propagation of Signals in Optical Fiber
Advantages
• Low loss ~0.2dB/km at 1550nm
• Enormous bandwidth at least 25THz
• Light weight
• Flexible
• Immunity to interferences
• Low cost
3
4
2.1.1Geometrical Optical Approach (Ray
Theory)
This approach is only applicable to multimode fibers.
n1
,
n0
For n1 1.5 0.01 (multimode)
n0 1 0max 12
max
n
Numerical Aperture NA= 0 sin 0 n1 2
Because different modes have different lengths of
paths, intermodal dispersion occurs. 8
Infermode dispersion will cause digital pulse spreading
Let L be the length of the fiber
The ray travels along the center of the core
T f Ln1 / C
The ray is incident at c (slow ray)
Ln1
Ts
c cos 1max
Ln12 max n2
cos 1
cn2 n1
T Ts T f
Ln12 Ln1
cn2 c
Ln1( n1 n2 )
cn2
Ln12
9
cn2
Assume that the bit rate = Bb/s
1
Bit duration T
B
T 1
T
2 2B
Ln12 1
cn2 2B
11
The time difference is given by (For Optical graded-index profile)
Ln1 2
T
8c
and 1
T
2B
4c c
BL
n1 2 (single mode BL 2n1 )
If 0.01, n1 1.5 BL 8 (Gb / s ) km
Long haul systems use single-mode fibers
12
2.1.2 Wave Theory Approach
Maxwell’s
equations
D D.1
B 0 D.2
B D.3
t
D
H J D.4
t
ρ : the charge density, J : the current density
D : the electric flux density,
B: the magnetic flux density
: the electric field, H : the magnetic field
13
Because
the field are function of time and location in the sp
ace, we denote them by
E ( r, t ) and H( r , t ) , where r and t are position vector and tim
e.
Assume the space is linear and time-invariant the Fourier tr
ansform of E( r, tis )
2.4
E
( r , w )
=
-
E ( r, t
w 2 f
)exp( iwt )dt
let P be the induced
electric polarization
D 0 E P 2.5
0 : the permittivity
of vacuum
B 0 ( H M ) 2.6
M : the magnetic polarization
0
: the permeability
of vacuum
注意有些書 Fourier
transform 定義為
( r, w)=
E - E (r, t ) exp( jwt )dt
E ( r, t ) exp( j 2 ft )dt
-
14
( r, w) exp( j 2 ft )dt
E ( r, t )=
-
E
Locality of Response: P and E related to dispersio
n and nonlinearities
If theresponse
to the appliedelectric
field is local
P ( r1 ) depends only on
E ( r )
1
15
Linearity
:
P( r, t ) 0 x( r, t t ' )E ( r, t ' )dt ' (Convolution Integral) 2.7
x( r, t ) : linear susceptibility
The Fourier transform of P(r, t ) is
( r, w) x( r, w)E
P ( r, w) 2.8
0
Where x( r, w) is the Fourier transform of E( r, t )
( x( r, t ) is similar to the impulse response)
x( r, w) is function of frequency
=> Chromatic dispersion
16
Homogeneity: A homogeneous medium has the sa
me electromagnetic properties at all points
x( r, t ) x(t )
The core of a graded-index fiber is inhomogeneou
s
Losslessness : No loss in the medium
iw 19
t
2
2
E ( r, t ) 0 0 2 E ( r, t ) 0 2 P( r, t )
t t
Take Fourier transform (
t
iw)
E ( r, w) w E
2 ( r, w) w P
2 ( r, w )
0 0 0
Recall
( r, w) x( r, w)E
P ( r, w ) 2.8
0
2 2
E( r, w) 0 0 w E( r, w) 0 0 w x( r, w) E ( r, w)
1
Denote c
0 0
c: speed of light
n( w) 1 x( w) (Locally response, isotropic, linear,
homogeneous, lossless)
2.9
2
E ( r, w) 0 0 w (1 x( r, w))E( r, w)
w2 n 2
2 E ( r, w ) 20
c
E ( r, w) ( E ( r, w)) E 2 ( r, w)
2
w n
2 2
E ( r, w) 2 E ( r, w) ( E ( r, w))
c
palacian operation
2
E ( r, t ) 0,
w 2 2
n ( w )
2 E ( r, w ) ( r, w ) 0
E
2 2.10
c
2
2 2
or E ( r, w) n ( w)K 0 E ( r, w) 0
where K 0 w 2
c (free space wave number)
21
For Cartesian coordinates
2 2 2
2
x 2 y 2 z 2
For Cylindrical coordinatesρ. φ and z
2 Ez 1 Ez 1 2 Ez 2 Ez
2
2 2
2 n2 k02 Ez 0
z
n1 a
n:{ n a
2
a: radius of the core
2
w n ( w)
2 2
Similarly
H ( r, w ) 2
H ( r, w) 0 2.11
c
Boundary conditions 0 E is finite
, E 0, and continuity of field at ρ=a
References:
G.P. Agrawal “Fiber-Optical Communication System” Chapter 2
John Senior “Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and practice”
John Gowar “Optical Communication Systems”
注意有些書在 time domain 運算
有些書在 frequency domain 運算 22
Fiber Modes
cladding
core
y
23
E core , E cladding , H core , and H cladding must satisfy 2.1
0, 2.11 and the boundary conditions.
let E ( r , w) E e x E e y E e z
x y z
Where e x , e y , and e z are unit vectors
29
30
Since Δ is small, a significant portion of the light
energy can propagate in the cladding, the
modes are weakly guided.
neff
k
n2 neff n1
It causes waveguide dispersion (different from
material dispersion)
( Appendix E )
For longer wave, it has more energy in the
cladding and vice versa. 31
A multimode fiber has a large value of V
2
The number of modes V
2
For example a=25μm, Δ=0.005
V=28 at 0.8μm
Define the normalized propagation constant (or
normalized effective index)
2 2
2
k n
def 2
n n
2
b 2 2
eff 2
2 2
2
2 2
k n1 k n2 n n 1 2
2
b(V ) (1.1428 0.9960 / V ) HE11 mode
( H z E z )
b(V ) is used to investigate the wave
32
propagation in fibers
Polarization
modes exist for all λ. Others only
Two fundamental
exist for λ< λcutoff,
x ex E
E ( r, t ) E yey E
z ez
z : longitudinal component
E
x , E
E y : transverse components
39
Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) operate in
the c and L bands, Fiber Raman Amplifiers
(FRA) operate in the S band.
All Wave fiber eliminates the absorption peaks due
to water.
40
41
2.2.1 Bending loss
A bend with r = 4cm, loss < 0.01dB
r↓ loss↑
2.2.3 Chromatic Dispersion
Different spectral components travel at different velocities.
a. Material dispersion n(w)
b. Waveguide dispersion, different wavelengths have dif
ferent energy distributions in core and cladding =>diff
erent β, kn2< β < kn1
1 dB , 1 : group velocity
dw 1
2
2 d B : group velocity dispersion (GVD ) parameter
dw2
If 2 0 zero dispersion
2 0, the dispersion is normal
42
2 0, the dispersion is anomalous
2.3.1 Chirped Gaussian Pulses
Chirped: frequency of the pulse changes wit
h time.
Cause of chirp: direct modulation, nonlinear
effects, generated on purpose. (soliton)
43
Appendix E, or Govind P. Agrawal “ Fiber- Optic C
ommunication Systems” 2nd Edition, John Wiley &
Sons. Inc. PP47~51
A chirped Gaussian pulse at z=0 is given by
2
1 ik t
2 T0
i0 t
G(t ) R A0 e
e
2
1 t
2
k t
2
T0
A0 e
cos 0 t
2 T0
2
1 t
2
T0
A0 e
cos (t )
kt 2
(t ) 0 t
2T0
The instantaneous angular frequency
d (t ) k
0 t
dt T0
T0 Pulse width 44
k = The chirp factor
Define: The linearly chirped pulse: the instantaneous a
ngular frequency increases or decreases with time,
(k=constant)
Note G ( t ) R
A o, t e i0 t
A A i A2
Solve 1 2 2 o with the initial
z t 2 t 1 ik t
2
2
T0
condition A( o, t ) A0 e (E.7)
A0T0 (1 ik )(t 1z )2
We get A( z, t ) exp
2
T0 i 2 z(1 ik )
2 T02 i 2 z(1 ik )
2
1 ik t 1z
Az exp
2 T02 i 2 z(1 ik ) (E.8)
A(z,t) is also Gaussian pulse
45
Tz T0 2 kz i 2 z
T0 2 kz 2 z
2 2
2 2
Tz 2 kz 2 z
1 2
T0 T 0 T
0
Broadening of chirped Gaussian pulses
48
Note β2> 0 , k< 0 β2k<0
49
2.3.2 Controlling the Dispersion Profile
Def:
Chromatic dispersion parameter
D = 2 c 2 2 in ps / nm km
D = DM + D w
The standard single mode fiber has small chromatic dispersion at 1.3 μ
m but large at 1.55 μm
50
At 1.55μm loss is low, and EDFA is well developed.
Dispersion becomes an issue
We have not much control over DM, but Dw can be cont
rolled by carefully designed refractive index profile.
Dispersion shifted fibers, which have zero dispersio
n in 1.55μm band
51
52
2.4 Nonlinear Effects
For bit rate ≦2.5 Gb/s, power a few mw
Linear Assumption is valid
Nonlinear effect appears for high power or high bit
rate ≧ 10 Gb/s and WDM systems
The first category relates to the interaction of light
wave with phonons (molecular vibrations)
- Rayleigh Scattering
- Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
- Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
53
The second category is due to the dependence of t
he refractive index on the intensity
- self-phase modulation (SPM)
- four-wave mixing (FWM)
SBS and SRS transfer energy from short λ (pump)
to long λ(stokes wave)
Scattering gain coefficient, g, is measured in meter
/watt and Δf.
● SPM induces chirping
In a WDM system, variation of n depending on the
intensity of all channels.
=>Yields Cross-phase modulation (CPM)
=>interchannel crosstalk 54
FWM, f1, f 2 , ... f n
fi , f j , f k ( fi f j f k ), e.g 2 fi f j , fi f j f k
55
2.4.1 Effective Length and Area
The nonlinear effect
depends on fiber length and cross-section.
P( z ) P0 e z
L
P0 Le z 0
P( z )dz
when Le : effective length
1 e L
Le
Typically 0.22 dB km at 1.55 m L 1 (for long link)
Le 20km
56
In addition nonlinear effect intensity
Ps(0) Pp(L)
SBS
pumping
58
g B 4 10 11 m independent of
w
dI s
gB I p Is Is (2.14)
dz
dI p
gB I p Is I p (2.15)
dz
I s : Intensity of stokes, Ps I s Ae
I p : Intensity of pump, Pp I p Ae
Ae : effective area
Assuming I s is small, g B I p I s I p
dI p
I p I p ( z ) I p (0)e z
dz
Pp ( L ) Pp (0)e L L : length
g B Pp (0) Le
Ps (0) Ps ( L )e L e Ae
(2.16)
1-e L
Le = (P.78)
59
L
Pp ( L ) Pp (0)e
2.4.3 Stimulated Roman Scattering (SRS)
SRS will deplete short wave power and amplifier long wave.
60
2.4.4 Propagation in a Nonlinear Medium
In a nonlinear
medium,
Fourier Transfer is not applicable.
When the electrical field has only one component, we can
write E (r, t ) and P( r, t ) as the scalar functions E ( r, t ) ,
and P( r, t ) .
Appendix F, P( r, t ) contains higher order terms
t
(1)
P( r, t ) 0 x ( r, t t1 )E ( r, t1 )dt1
t t
0 x (t t1, t t2 )E( r, t1 )E( r, t2 )dt1dt2
(2)
t t t
0 x (t t1, t t2 , t t3 )E ( r, t1 )E ( r, t2 )E ( r, t3 )dt1dt2 dt3 ( F .1)
(3)
(1)
x ( r, t ) : the linear susceptibility
(i )
x ( r, t ) : higher order nonlinear susceptibilities
P( r, t ) PL (r, t ) PNL ( r, t )
61
linear polarization nonlinear polarization
(i )
Because of symmetry x (2)
( r, t ) 0 , and x 0
i 4. 5...
t t t
PNL ( r, t ) 0 x (t t1, t t2, t t3 )E ( r, t1)E ( r, t 2 )E ( r, t 3 )dt1dt 2dt 3 ( F .2)
(3)
The nonlinear response occurs less than 100x10-15sec.
If the bit rate is less than 100 Gb/s, then
x(3) (t t1, t t2 , t t3 ) x(3) (t t1 ) ( t t2 ) (t t3 )
PNL ( r, t ) 0 x E ( r, t ) E 3
(3) 3
(2.19)
x(3): the third-order nonlinear susceptibility independent of time
For simplicity, assume that the signals are monochromatic plan
e waves
E( r, t ) E( z, t ) E cos( w0t i z )
E is constant in the plane perpendicular to the dispersion of
propagation
In WDM systems with n wavelengths at the angular frequencie
s w1, w2 ... wn .,( 1, 2 ... n ) 0
n
E ( r, t ) E ( z, t ) E cos( w t z )
i 1
i i i i
62
2.4.5 Self-phase Modulation (SPM)
Because n is intensity – dependent
=>induces phase shift proportional to the intensity
=>creates chirping => pulse broadening
It is significant for high power systems.
Consider a single channel case
E ( z, t ) E cos( w0t 0 z )
PNL ( r, t ) 0 x(3) E 3 cos3 ( w0t 0 z )
3 1
0 x(3) E 3 cos( w0t 0 z ) cos(3 w0 t 3 0 z ) (2.20)
4 4
3 w0 0 shorter wavelength, the last term is negligible
3
3
PNL ( r, t )=( 0 x (3) E 2 )E cos( w0t 0 z ) (2.21)
4 63
E ( z, t )
Recall (1)
n ( w) 1 x for
2
linear medium
2
Now, we have to modify ( w) as
n
2 (1) 3 (3) 2
n ( w) 1 x x E
4
We get
w (1) 3 (3) 2
0 0 1 x x E
c 4
(1)
let 2
n 1 x
w0 n 3 (3) 2
0 1 2
x E
c 4n
x(3) is very small
w0 3 (3 ) 2
0 (n x E ) (2.22)
c 8n
2
propagation constant changes with E
2
=> Phase changes with E intensity 64
E ( z, t ) E cos( w0t 0 z ) ,whose phase changes as E z2 , th
is phenomenon is referal as self- phase modulation (SPM)
The intensity of the electrical field
1
I 0 cnE 2 in w 2
2 m
The intensity-dependent refractive index is
( E ) n nI
n (2.23)
The nonlinear index coefficient
2 3
n x( 3 )
0 cn 8 n
n 2.2 3.4 10 8 m
2
in silica fiber
w
8 m
2
We take n 3.2 10 for example
w
Because a pulse has its finite temporal extent
=>The phase shift is different in different parts of the pulse
The leading edges have positive frequency shift
The tailing edges have negative frequency shift
=> SPM causes positive chirping 65
2.4.6 SPM-induced chirp for Gaussian Pulses
Consider an unchirped pulse with envelope
2
U (0, ) e 2 which has unit peak amplitude and
1
e
-width T0=1, and the peak power P0=1
Ae
Define the
LNL nonlinear
2 nP0
length as
66
From Appendix E, (E.18)
2
iz U (0, )
LNL
U ( z, ) U (0, z )e E.18
iz
LNL 2
U (0, z )e e
After propagation L distance,
The SPM-induced phase change is
' L e 2
LNL
The instantaneous frequency is given by
2 L 2
w( ) w0 e , w0 : central freg.
LNL
and the chirp factor is
2 L 2
k SPM ( ) e (1 2 2 )
LNL
References: Appendix E, and (Arg97) 67
2 L 2 (1 2 2 )
k SPM ( ) e increases with L
LNL
1 e L
Recall Le effective length (2.25)
1
<
At the center of the pulse 0
2 Ae
k SPM , LNL
LNL 2 nP0
At 1.55 m, 0.22 dB
km
For P0 1mw LNL 384km negligible 68
P0 10mw LNL 38 km significant
2.4.7 Cross-Phase Modulation
In WDM systems, the intensity-dependent nonlinear effects
(phase shift) are enhanced by other signals, this effect is
referred to as cross-phase modulation (CPM)
Consider two channels
E( r, t ) E1 cos( w1t 1z ) E2 cos( w2t 2 z )
(3) 3
Recall PNL ( r, t ) 0 x E ( r, t ) (2.19)
E1 cos( w1t 1z ) E2 cos( w2t 2 z )
(3) 3
0 x
69
2w1+w2, 2w2+w1, 3w1and 3w2 can be neglected
2w1-w2, 2w2-w1, are part of FWM.
Consider the w1 channel, the CPM term is
3
0 x(3) ( E12 2 E22 )E1 cos( w1t 1z ) (2.27)
4
SPM CPM
If E1=E2
Apparently CPM effect is twice of SPM.
In practice, β1 and β2 are different
=> The pulses corresponding to individual channel
walk away from each other.
=> can not interact further
=> CPM is negligible for standard fibers
Note for DSF, they travel at same velocity, CPM is
significant
70
2.4.8 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
71
wi, wj ,wk (three waves) generate
wi ± wj ± wk (fourth wave)
For example, channel spacing Δw
w2 = w1 + Δw, w3 = w1 + 2Δw
w1- w2+ w3 = w2, 2w2-w1 = w3
72
Define wijk wi w j wk , i, j k
The degeneracy factor
d i. j .k 3
6
i j
i j
( eq. 2.30)
( eq. 2.33)
The normalized Pijk(z,t) is given by
0 x(3)
Pijk ( z, t )
4
dijk Ei E j Ek cos ( wi w j wk ) t ( i j k ) z (2.36)
n 3.0 10 8 m2
w
L 20km
Pijk 9.5 w
about 20dB below Pi 1mw
75
76
Large Effective Area Fiber (LEAF)
1
nonlinear effect A for fix power
e
77
78
Positive and Negative Dispersion Fibers For
Chromatic dispersion compensation
79
80