AN INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS
What is Thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of
energy and related properties of matter, especially of the laws of heat into other forms of
energy and vice versa.
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work. It is also tackles all properties of
substances that have any relation with heat and work.
Simply speaking, thermodynamics deals with the effects of heat, work, and energy in a
system.

HOT COLD
Terms in Thermodynamics
Surroundings → all matter and space outside to a system.

Closed System → is one in which there is no exchange of matter with the surroundings.

Open System → is one across whose boundaries there is a flow of mass.

Isolated System → a physical system that does NOT interact or exchange energy with its surroundings.

Controlled Volume (Volume) → the focused volume in space from which the substance flows.
( turbine, pump, heater, etc.)

Controlled Surface → surface that surrounds the controlled volume.

Phase → quantity of matter having the same chemical composition or homogeneous.

Property → a quantity which serves to describe a substance.

Heat Transfer Mass Transfer Heat Transfer

Open System Closed System Isolated System

Thermodynamic Properties

Thermodynamic properties are defined as system characteristics that can be used to

specify the system's state. There are two types of thermodynamic properties: Intensive
Property and Extensive Property.

Intensive Property Extensive Property

A property which does NOT depend on the mass of A property which depends on the mass of the
the substance. substance.
→ Temperature → Density → Volume → Momentum

→ Pressure → Stress → Energy

→ Velocity
Working Substance
A working substance is a fluid in which energy can be stored and from which energy can
be removed. A fluid is a liquid, gas, vapor⎼matter that offers little resistance to
deformation. Some examples of working substances are: steam in steam turbine, air in air
compressor, air-and-fuel mixture in an internal combustion engine, water in hydraulic
turbine etc.
There are two types of working substances: the Pure Substance and Ideal Gas.
 Pure Substance Ideal Gas

→ is a working substance whose chemical → is a working substance which remains in gaseous

composition remains the same even there is a change state during its operating cycle and whose equation of
in phase. state is PV=mRT.

Examples: Examples:

→ Water → Air

→ Ammonia (NH₃) → O₂

→ Freon 12 (CCl2F2) → N₂

→ CO₂
Properties of a Working Substance
As discussed earlier, properties may be classified as intensive or extensive. It also defines
that volume is an extensive property and that pressure and temperature are inherently
intensive. With this, no matter what happens to a particular mass of a pure substance
(compressed, heated, expanded, cooled), if it is returned to the original defining
properties, the other thermodynamic properties also return to its original values. These
properties include mass, weight, volume, pressure, temperature, specific volume, density,
specific weight, internal energy, work (non-flow and flow), enthalpy, and entropy.
Mass and Weight
Mass → a property of matter that constitutes one of the fundamental physical
measurements or the amount of matter a body contains. ( slugs, kgₘ, lb ₘ)
Weight → the force acting on a body in a gravitational field, equal to the product of its
mass and the gravitational acceleration of the field. (lb ꬵ, kg ꬵ, N, kN)
In accordance with Newton’s law, the acceleration of a particular body is proportional to
the resultant force, which leads to the formula:
F𝑔 = mg
W = mg
Volume and Pressure
Volume → the amount of space occupied by, or contained in a body and is measured by
the number of cubes a body contains. ( ft³, gallons, liters, cm³, or m³).
Pressure → The pressure is caused by the pounding of a large number of gas or liquid
molecules on the surface. (psi, kg/cm², kN/m², or kPa).
It is also define by the equation P = F/A, wherein P is pressure, F is the force, and A is the
unit area. There are three types of pressure: Absolute Pressure, Gauge Pressure, and
Atmospheric Pressure.
 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
kPaₐ = kPa𝑔 + 101.325 kPa
Psiₐ = Psi𝑔 + 14.7 Psi
1 atm pressure = 0 kPa𝑔
= 101.325 kPa
= 1.033 kg/cm²
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mm Hg
= 14.7 psiₐ

1 bar = 100 kPa

The pressure of the perfect vacuum is equal to the absolute zero pressure, or simply -101.325 kPa 𝑔.
Temperature
Temperature → the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. Its scale is an arbitrary
thing. Thermodynamics requires the use of absolute temperature, which is measured from a
point of absolute zero.

Temperature Scales (℃ and ℉)

℃ ℉

℃ = 5/9 (℉ - 32) ℉ = 9/5 ℃ +32

The temperature at which molecules stop moving is approximately -273 ℃ or -460 ℉.

Absolute Temperature
°K °R

°K = ℃ + 273 °R = ℉ + 460

Temperature Difference

Δ℃ = 5/9 Δ℉ Δ°K = Δ℃

Δ℉ = 9/5 Δ℃ Δ°R = Δ℉
Specific Volume, Density, and Specific Weight
→ The density of any substance is its mass per unit volume.
⍴ = m/V
→ The specific volume is the volume of a unit mass, and is the reciprocal of density.
𝒗 = V/m
𝒗 = 1/⍴
→ The specific weight is the force of gravity on unit volume.
⍵ = W/V
 Specific Gravity of Liquid Specific Gravity of Liquid

Specific gravity of Liquid = Density of Liquid Specific gravity of Gas = Density of Gas
Density of Water Density of Air

Density of Water = 1000 kg/m³ Density of Air = 1.2 kg/m³ at 101.325 kPa and 21.1 ℃
= 9.81kN/m³
= 62.4 lb/ft³