Development and

Inheritance
GEOFRY OUMA
Development, Inheritance, and Homeostasis

 Both the genetic material inherited from parents (heredity) and normal development in
the uterus (environment) play important roles in determining the homeostasis of a
developing embryo and fetus and the subsequent birth of a healthy child.
 we will study the sequence of events from the fertilization of a secondary oocyte by
a sperm cell to the formation of an adult organism.
 In particular, we focus on the developmental sequence from fertilization through
implantation, embryonic and fetal development, labor, and birth.
Overview of Development

 sexual reproduction is the process by which organisms produce off spring by making sex
cells called gametes.
 Male gametes are called sperm (spermatozoa) and female gametes are called secondary
oocytes.
 The organs that produce gametes are called gonads; these are the testes in the male and
the ovaries in the female.
 Once sperm have been deposited in the female reproductive tract and a secondary
oocyte has been released from the ovary, fertilization can occur.
 This process initiates a cascade of developmental events that, when completed properly,
produces a healthy newborn baby.
 Pregnancy is a sequence of events that begins with fertilization, proceeds to
implantation, embryonic development, and fetal development, and ideally ends with
birth about 38 weeks later, or 40 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual period.
 Development biology is the study of the sequence of events from the fertilization
of a secondary oocyte by a sperm cell to the formation of an adult organism.
 From fertilization through the eighth week of development, the embryonic period, the
developing human is called an embryo.
 Embryology is the study of development from the fertilized egg through the eighth
week.
 The fetal period begins at week nine and continues until birth. During this time, the
developing human is called a fetus.
 Prenatal development is the time from fertilization to birth and includes both the
embryonic and fetal periods.
 Prenatal development is divided into periods of three calendar months each, called
trimesters.
Trimesters of pregnancy

1. During the first trimester, the most critical stage of development, all of the major organ-
systems begin to form. Because of the extensive, widespread activity, it is also the period
when the developing organism is most vulnerable to the effects of drugs, radiation, and
microbes.
2. The second trimester is characterized by the nearly complete development of organ
systems. By the end of this stage, the fetus assumes distinctively human features.
3. The third trimester represents a period of rapid fetal growth in which the weight of the
fetus doubles. During the early stages of this period, most of the organ systems become fully
functional.
FIRST WEEK OF DEVELOPMENT

 Embryonic period begins from fertilization through eigth week of development.

 Four major events occurs during the first week of development, that is:
1. Fertilization
2. Cleavage of the zygote
3. Blastocyst formation
4. Implantation
Fertilization

 Genetic material from the haploid sperm cell and from the haploid secondary oocyte
merges into a single diploid nucleus.
 During sexual intercouse 200 million sperm cells are deposited in the vagina, less than
2million(less than 1%) reaches the cervix and only 200 reaches the vicinity of the
secondary oocyte and usually one fertilizes it.
 Fertilization usually occurs within 12-24 hrs after ovulation.
 A sperm can only remain viable 48hrs after deposition into the vagina, while secondary
oocyte is only viable for about 24hrs after ovulation.
 This means that pregnancy is likely to occur if intercourse takes place within 3-day window- 2 days before ovulation and 1 day after
ovulation.
 Fertilization can be briefly divided into the following phases:
1. Sperm deposition into the vagina.
2. Movement of the sperm from the vagina to the cervical canal.
3. Movement of the sperm from the cervical canal through the rest of the uterus to the uterine or fallopian tube.
4. Arrival of the sperm at the vicinity of the secondary oocyte and capacitation.
5. Penetration of the corona radiata.
6. Penetration of the zona pellucida.
7. Entry of the sperm into cytoplasm of the secondary oocyte.
8. Completion of the meiosis II by the secondary oocyte.
9. Formation of the male and female pronuclei.
10. Formation of a single diploid nucleus(syngamy) and zygote
Movement of the sperm to the oviduct.

 Sperm swim from vagina into the cervical canal by the whip like movements of their
flagella(tails).
 During sexual intercouse, semen is also deposited into the vagina. One of the components
is the prostaglandins which stimulates uterine motility at the time of intercourse.
 Passage of sperm through the rest of the uterus and then into uterine tube results mainly
from contractions of these organs.
capacitation

 Sperm that reach the vicinity of the secondary oocyte within minutes after ejaculation are
not capable of fertilizing it until 7hrs later.
 During this time in the female reproductive tract, mostly uterine tube, sperm undergoes
capacitation.
 Capacitation refers to the functional changes that cause the sperm’s tail to beat even more
vigorously and prepare its plasma membrane to fuse with the secondary oocyte’s plasma
membrane.
 Capacitation is facilitated by the secretions produced by the female reproductive tract.
 Plasma membrane changes include removal of the glycoprotein, cholestrol and protein
from the plasma membrane around the head of the sperm.
 Only capacitated sperm are capable of being attracted by responding to chemical factors
produced by the sorrounding cells of the ovulated oocyte.
Penetration of the corona radiata

 Corona radiata refers to the granulosa cells that sorrounds the secondary oocyte.
 Acrosome of the sperm contains several enzymes. Acrosomal enzymes and strong tail
movement of the sperm facilitates the penetration of corona radiata into zona pellucida.
Penetration of the zona pellucida

 Zona pellucida is a clear glycoprotein layer between the corona radiata and the secondary
oocyte.
 Once the sperm comes into contact with this layer, one of the glycoprotein called the ZP3 acts
as sperm receptor.
 Its binding to specific membrane proteins in the sperm head triggers acrosomal reaction,
release of the acrosomal contents.
 The acrosomal enzymes digests a path through the zona pellucida as the lashing sperm tail
push the sperm onwards.
 Although many sperm cell bind to ZP3 and undergo acrosomal reactions, only the first sperm
cell to penetrate the entire zona pellucida and reach the oocyte plasma membrane fuses with the
oocyte.
Changes to block polyspermy

 Polyspermy refers to fertilization by more than one cell.

 After the fusion of the sperm cell membrane with secondary oocyte plasma membrane,
and sperm enters the oocyte’s cytoplasm, two events occur that prevents polyspermy.
i. Fast block to polyspermy- within a few seconds, the cell membrane of the oocyte
depolarizes making it difficult for fusion with other sperm cell
ii. Slow block to polyspermy- depolarization also triggers intracellular release of the
calcium ions, which stimulates the exocytosis of secretory vesicles from the oocyte.
The molecules released by exocytosis inactivates ZP3 and harden the entire zona
pellucida.
Completion of meiosis II

 Once a sperm cell enters the secondary oocyte, it must complete meiosis II, it divides
into a larger ovum(mature eggs) and a smaller polar body which fragments and
disintegrates.
Formation of the pronuclei

 The nucleus in the head of the sperm develop into male pronucleus and nucleus in the
secondary oocyte develops into female pronucleus.
Formation of the zygote

 After formation of the male and female pronuclei, they fuse producing a single diploid
nucleus called syngamy.
 The fusion of the haploid(n) pronuclei restores the diploid(2n) of 46 chromosomes. The
fertilized ovum is now the zygote.
Formation of twins

 Dizygotic (fraternal) twins are produced from the independent release of two secondary
oocytes and the subsequent fertilization of each by different sperm. They are the same
age and in the uterus at the same time, but genetically they are as dissimilar as any other
siblings. Dizygotic twins may or may not be the same sex.
 Because monozygotic (identical) twins develop from a single fertilized ovum, they
contain exactly the same genetic material and are always the same sex.
 Monozygotic twins arise from separation of the developing cells into two embryos,
which in 99% of the cases occurs before 8 days have passed. Separations that occur later
than 8 days are likely to produce conjoined twins, a situation in which the twins are
joined together and share some body structures.
Cleavage of the zygote

 After fertilization, rapid mitotic cell divisions of the zygote called cleavage takes place.
 First division of the zygote begins about 24hrs after fertilization and is completed after
6hrs.
 The succeding divisions takes slightly less time.
 By the second day after fertilization, 2nd cleavage is completed and there are four cells.
 By the end of the third day there are 16 cells.
 The progressively small cells produced by cleavage are called blastomeres.
 Successive cleavage eventually produce a sphere of cells called the morula.
 The morula is still sorrounded by the zona pellucida and is about the same size as the
original zygote.
Blastocyst formation

 By the end of the fourth day, the number of cells in the morula increases as it continues
to move through the uterine tube towards the uterine cavity.
 When the morula enters the uterine cavity on day 4 or 5, a glycogen rich secretion from
the glands of the endometrium of the uterus passes into the uterine cavity and enters the
morula through the zona pellucida.
 This fluid called the uterine milk, along with nutrients stored in thecytoplasms of the
blastomeres of the morula provides nourishment for the developing morula.
 At the 32-cell stage, the fluid enters the morula, collects between the blastomeres and
reorganizes the blastomeres around a large fluid filled cavity called the blastocyst cavity.
 Once the blastocyst cavity is formed, the developing mass is called the blastocyst.
 Though it now has hundred of cells, the blastocyst is still about the same size as the
initial zygote.
 During formation of the blastocyst, two distinct cell population arise: the embryoblast
and the trophoblast.
 The embryoblast, also the inner cell mass is located internally and eventually develops
into embryo.
 The trophoblast is the outer superficial layer of cells that forms the sphere like wall of
blastocyst. It will ultimately develop into the outer chorionic sac that sorrounds the fetus
and the fetal portion of the placenta, the site of exchange of nutrients and wastes between
the mother and the fetus.
 Around the fifth day, after fertilization, the blastocyst ‘hatches’ from the zona pellucida
by digesting a hole in it with enzymes and then squeeze the hole.
 This shedding of the zona pellucida is necessary in order to permit the next step,
implantation(attachment) into the vascular glandular endometrial lining of the uterus.
Implantation

 The blastocyst remains free within the uterine cavity for about 2 days before it attaches to
the uterine wall.
 At this time, the endometrium is in it’s secretory phase.
 About 6 days after fertilization, the blastocyst loosely attaches to the endometrium on a
process called implantation.
 As the blastocyst implants, usually in either the posterior portion of the fundus or the
body of uterus, it orients with the inner cell mass/embryoblast towards the endometrium.
 About 7 days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium more firmly,
endometrial glands in the vicinity enlarges and the endometrium becomes more
vascularized(formation of new blood vessels).
 The blastocyst eventually secretes enzymes and burrows into the endometrium and
becomes sorrounded by it.
 Following implantation, the endometrium is called the decidua.
 The decidua separates from the endometrium after the fetus is delivered, much as it does
in normal menstruation.
 Different regions of the decidua are named based on the postions relative to the site of
implanted blastocyst.
 The decidua basalis- is the portionof the endometrium between the embyo and the
stratum basalis of the uterus;it provides large amounts of glycogen and lipids for the
developing embryo and fetus and later becomes the maternal side of the placenta.
 The decidua capsularis-is the portion of the endometrium between the embryo and
uterine cavity.
 The decidual parietalis- is the remaining modified endometrium that lines the non-
involved areas of the uterus.
 As the embryo and later the fetus enlarges, the decidua capsularis buldges into the uterine
cavity and fuses with the decidua parietalis, thereby obliterating the uterine cavity.
 By about 27 weeks, the decidua capsularis degenerates and dissapears.
Second week of development

 The following events takes place:

1. Development of the trophoblast.
2. Development of the bilaminar embryonic disk.
3. Development of the amnion.
4. Development of the yolk sac
5. Development of the sinusoids.
6. Development of the extraembryonic coelom.
7. Development of the chorion.