The Solar System & the Earth

Solar System
-consists of the sun, the planets, more than 130
satellites of the planets, a large number of
small bodies (the comets and asteroids) and
the interplanetary medium
-inner solar system comprises the Sun, Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars. The main asteroid belt
lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
-The planets of the outer solar systems are
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
-the first thing so noticeable about the solar
system is that it is mostly empty space
-the planets are very small compared to the
space between them.
-the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the
sun one focus, though all except Mercury is
very nearly circular
-the orbits of the planets are all more or less in
the same plane (called ecliptic and defined by
the plane of the earth’s orbit)
-the sun exerts gravitational force on the other
members of the solar system.
-this force is known as gravitational attraction or
gravity which keeps the planets from sailing
out into space as they revolve around the sun
in their particular orbits.
-the general physical law of gravity states “any
particles of matter attract each other with a
force directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them”.
-this means that of two heavenly bodies are big
and near each other, the gravitational pull
between them is strong. Since the sun has a
mass so many times greater than that of any
of the planets, it exercises strong attraction
upon them and thus retain them within the
system of which the sun is the center.
Centrifugal Force
-if the gravitational attraction of the sun were
the only force in operation, the sun would
draw all the planets into its fiery mass and
eventually destroy the, but this does not
happen due to the result of we call centrifugal
force.
-this force tends to make moving bodies fly away
from any center of rotation. Since planets are
revolving celestial bodies, each one develops
considerable centrifugal force.
-the balance between the sun’s gravitational
effects and the centrifugal effect of each of
the planets determine the detailed path that
each follows around the sun. Hence, because
of the balance pull of the gravitational and
centrifugal forces , the earth does not get
sucked into the fiery heat of the sun, nor does
it get flung into the dark and cold void of
space.
-In addition, the solar system also includes a
group of planetary fragments known as
asteroids as well as a host of more chaotic
wanderers known as comets and meteors.
There is continuous movement within the
system while the system itself moves as a unit
through interstellar space.
The Sun
-the source of solar radiation or sunlight allows
life to exist on Earth.
-it has spherical gaseous body about 1,300,000
times of the earth’s volume and its diameter is
1.4 million kilometers (865, 400 miles) 109
times that of the earth.
-the planets and their satellites are lighted and
heated by the energy emitted from this
tremendously hot surface that has a
temperature estimated at about 5,700 *C to
6,000 *C.
The Planet Earth
-the earth is a minor planet bound to an
extraordinary star in the outskirts of a galaxy
known as the Milky Way, far out in the
immeasurable universe.
-it is the one and only place that can support
human life.
-its interior and its crust, its atmosphere and its
climate and even its behavior in space- all
these along with other attributes form a
favorable enviornment in which life flourishes.
The Size and Shape of the Earth
-the earth is nearly but not exactly spherical.
-the equatorial diameter if 7, 926, 677 miles and
polar diameter of 7, 899, 998 miles
-the earth is pear shaped or an oblate ellipsoid.
The bulging and flattening of the earth is
caused partly by the earth’s rotation. As a
result of spins, an outward or centrifugal force
results.
 The Structure of the Earth
Seismology- the scientific research that is done
to find out which material the earth consists
of, what different layers there and which
influence those have on earth’s surface.

The Earth’s Core

-it is the inner part of the earth
-this is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the
earth’s surface
-it is the dense ball of the elements iron & nickel
-it is divided into two layers the inner core and
the outer core
-the inner core-the center of the earth is solid
and about 780 miles (1,250 km) thick.
-the out core is so hot that the metal is always
molten, but the inner core pressures are so
great that it cannot melt even though
temperatures there reach 6,700 *F (3700*C)
-the outer core is about 1,370 miles (2,200 km)
thick. Because the earth rotates, the outer
core spins around the inner core and that
causes the earth’s magnetisms
-the core is so hot, radiating a natural heat to the
upper layers which create heat currents known
as convection currents.
-the currents cause the movement of the
tectonic plates. Since the earth rotates, the
outer core spins, but the inner core does not
spin because it is solid.
-Magnetism has been used by sailors to find their
way on Earth for thousand and thousand of
years. Magnetism also influences electro-
particles outside the atmosphere of the earth,
up to more than 37,000 miles (60,000 km) into
space.
The inner core- it is 3,200-3, 960 miles (5,150-
6,370 km) below the earth’s surface.
-it consists mainly of iron, nickel
and some lighter elements like sulphur,
carbon, oxygen, silicon and potassium.
-the temperature in the inner
core is about 9,032-10,832 *F (5,000-6,000
*C).
-because of high temperature the
core is solid. The average density is about 15
g/cm3.
The outer core- it is at 1,800- 3,200 miles
(2,890-5,150 km) below the earth’s surface.
- the outer core is liquid and
mainly consists of iron, some nickel and about
10% sulphur and oxygen.
-the temperature in the outer
core is about 7200-9032 *F (4000-5000 *C).
-the density of the outer core is
between 10g/cm3 and 12.3g/cm3.
-the outer core and inner core
together cause the earth’s magnetism
The Mantle
-the layer above the core
-It begins about 6 miles (10 km) below the
oceanic crust and about 19 miles (30 km)
below the continental crust)
- The mantle is divided into inner mantle and
the outer mantle
-It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and
makes up nearly 80 percent of the earth’s
total volume.
 -Because the earth is very hot inside, a current
of heat flows from the core to the crust. This is
called convection current and it also takes place in
the mantle. This current cools down as it comes
closer to the surface of the earth. As a result, the
rising of the current decreases and goes into
horizontal direction along the bottom of the crust.
When the current cools down more, the
convection current descends again and goes to the
inner earth. There the temperature increases and
the current rises again and this is continuous
process.
 -When the current comes at a weaker part of
the crust, for example at a volcano, magma
comes above the earth’s surface. The
convection current along the bottom of the
crust causes the moving of the tectonic plates.
This is called plate tectonics. The movement
of these plates goes very slowly. The bumping
of the tectonic plates causes an earthquake.
The inner mantle- the inner mantle can be
found between 190 miles (300 km) and 1800
miles (2890 km) below the earth’s surface
-the average temperature is
5400 *F (3000*C), nevertheless the rock is
solid because of the high pressures.
-the inner mantle for the
biggest part probably consists of sulphides and
oxides of silicon and magnesium. The density
is between 4.3g/cm3 and 5.4.g/cm3.
The outer mantle- is a lot thinner than the
inner mantle.
-it can be found between 7
miles (10km) and 190 miles (300 km) below
the surface of the earth. It can be divided into
two layers.
-The bottom layer is tough
liquid rock and probably consists of silicates of
iron and magnesium. The temperature in this
part is between 2520 *F (1400*C) and 5400 *F
(3000*C) and the density is between 3.4g/cm3
and 4.3g/cm3.
 -The upper layer of the outer mantle
consists of the same material but is stiffer
because of its lower temperature.
The Crust
-it lies above the mantle and is the earth’s hard
outer shell, the surface on which we are living.
-in relation with other layers, the crust is much
thinner.
-it floats upon the softer denser mantle.
-it is made up of solid material but this material
is not everywhere the same
-there is Oceanic crust and a Continental crust,
The first on is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km )thick
and consists of heavy rocks like basalt.
-the crust itself has no influence on the earth,
but the constant moving of the crust does.
-this moving is caused by the influence of the
convection current, or to be more precise, this
convection current actually causes the earth
plates to move and sometimes touch each
other
-these movements cause earthquakes and at
weak parts of the earth’s crust volcanoes can
erupt.
-Because of all these ongoing movements in the
last million years, mountains and valleys have
been formed and that is why the surface of the
earth looks as it is now.
-the form of the surface of the earth has its daily
influence on the way people live and work. An
example : the building of houses. When you
build a house in the mountains, you build it in
another way than on flat land.
-In the mountains the bottom is more solid than
on flat land. Volcanoes and earthquakes also
have their direct influence on the people who
live near places where they occur.
-The crust consists of two parts: the oceanic and
the continental crust.

Oceanic Crust
-this crust is below the oceans.
-There, the crust is 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick. The
rocks of the oceanic crust are very young
compared to the rocks of the continental
crust.
-The rocks of the oceanic crust are not older
than 200 million years.
- The material of which the oceanic crust
consists is for the greater part tholeitic basalt
(this is basalt without olivine). Basalt has a
dark, fine and gritty volcanic structure. It is
formed out of very liquid lava, which cools off
quickly.
- The grains are so small that they are only
visible under a microscope. The average
density of the oceanic crust is 3g/cm3.
Continental Crust
-the surface of the earth consists of a lot of
water (71%).
-the other 29% consists of land.
-this can be divided into six or big big pieces
which are called continents.
-the continents are Europe, Asia, Africa, North
America, South America, Antarctica, and
Australia
-the earth’s crust is the thickest below the
continents with an average of about 20 to 25
miles (30 to 40 km) and with a maximum of
45 miles (70 km)
-the continental crust is older than the oceanic
crust, some rocks are 3.8 billion years old.
-the continental crust mainly consists of igneous
rocks and is divided into two layers. The upper
part mainly consists of granite rocks, while the
lower part consists of basalt and diorite.
-Granite is lightly colored, coarse grain, magma
-Diorite has the same composition, but it is
scarcer than granite and is probably formed by
impurities in the granite-magma.
-the average density of the continental crust is
2.7g/cm3.
-it is thicker than the oceanic crust , about 19
miles. It is mainly made up of light material
like granite.