Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

 Atoms are the building blocks of all

matter
 They are incredibly small, with a radius of
only 1 × 10-10 m
 This means that about one hundred million
atoms could fit side by side across your
thumbnail
 Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their
centre, with electrons orbiting around the
nucleus
 The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000
times smaller than the whole atom, but it
contains almost all of the mass of the atom
Parts of the Atom

 The nucleus contains:

 Protons – positively charged particles
with a relative atomic mass of one unit
 Neutrons – no charge, and also with a
relative atomic mass of one unit
 Almost all of the atom is empty space,
but moving around the nucleus there are:
 Electrons – negative charge with almost
no mass (1/2000 the mass of a proton or
neutron)
 The properties of each of the particles are
shown in the table below:
Electron Structure
 Electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus
at particular distances, known as energy levels
 A certain number of electrons can occupy each
energy level
 For example, only two electrons can orbit in the
first energy level
 Only eight electrons can fit in the second
energy level, and eight in the third as well
 The higher the energy level, the further the
distance of the electron from the nucleus
 Like moving up a ladder, electrons in higher
energy levels have greater potential energy
because they have more distance between
them and the nucleus
Electrons & Protons

 Although atoms contain particles of

different charge, the total charge within
an atom is zero
 This is because the number
of electrons is equal to the number
of protons
A nucleus of carbon-12 is shown below.
How many electrons are there in an atom of
carbon-12? Step 1: Count the number of protons in

the carbon nucleus
 There are 6 protons in the carbon atom
 Step 2: Determine the number of
electrons
 Remember, the number of electrons in an
atom is equal to the number of protons
 Therefore there must be 6 electrons in the
carbon atom
 The Absorption & Emission of EM
Radiation
 Electrons in an atom are arranged in energy levels
 Lower energy levels are closer to the nucleus, whilst
higher energy levels are further away from the nucleus
of the atom
 These electrons can absorb energy
 This happens when waves of electromagnetic radiation
(such as light and heat) hit them
When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation, they
move to a higher energy level
 Dark coloured objects are good absorbers of radiation
 They appear dark because they do not reflect the energy
that hits them
Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation

 When an electron has moved up an energy

level, it will be unstable
 Eventually, it will move back down to
its original energy level, which will be closer
to the nucleus
 As it moves back down, It emits a wave of
electromagnetic radiation
 All of the colours in the visible spectrum are
produced in this way
 The light waves come from electrons moving
down energy levels and emitting
electromagnetic radiation
Atomic & Mass Number
 Atomic Number
 The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (it can also be called the
proton number)
 Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
 Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
 The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
 For example:
 Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
 Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
 Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
 The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
 This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no
overall charge
Mass Number

 The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number
 The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
 The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from
the mass number
 Number of Neutron = Mass Number – Atomic Number
 For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of
11, then the number of neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12
Nuclear Notation
 The mass number and atomic number of an atom are
shown by writing them with the atomic symbol
 This is called nuclear notation
 Here are three examples:
 The top number is the mass number
 This is equal to the total number of particles (protons
and neutrons) in the nucleus
 The lower number is the atomic number
 This is equal to the total number of protons in the
nucleus
 The atomic and mass number of each type of atom in
the examples above is shown in this table:
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons,
neutrons and electrons are in the gold atom?
 Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number
 The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a
mass number of 197 (top number)
 Step 2: Determine the number of protons
 The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
 The atom has 79 protons
 Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons
 The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons
 The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the
atomic number
 197 – 79 = 118
 The atom has 118 neutrons
 Step 4: Determine the number of electrons
 An atom has the same number of protons and electrons
 The atom has 79 electrons
 Isotopes
 Although the number of protons in a particular element
is always the same, the number of neutrons can be
different
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an
equal number of protons but a different number
of neutrons
 In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:
 Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than
others
 For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms
is Deuterium
 Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion
hydrogen atoms)
 Differences Between Isotopes
 The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the
chemical properties of an atom, such as its charge, but only
its mass
 This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass
 In the periodic table, the mass number of Chlorine is often
given as 35.5
 The mass number of Chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has
roughly equal numbers of isotopes with a mass number of
35, and of 36
 The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes
remains the same
 Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to the imbalance of
protons and neutrons
State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 atoms.

 Step 1: Determine the number of protons

 The atomic number is the number of protons
 Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 protons
 Step 2: Determine the number of neutrons
 The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons
 Chlorine-35 neutrons: 35 – 17 = 18 neutrons
 Chlorine-36 neutrons: 36 – 17 = 19 neutrons
 Step 3: Determine the number of electrons
 The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
 Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 electrons
Positive Ions
 Electrons in the outer energy level can be knocked out from an atom
 This can happen in a number of ways:
 When objects are rubbed together, electrons can be removed by friction
 When electrons absorb electromagnetic radiation they can gain enough energy to leave the atom
 From chemical reactions
 When one or more electrons are removed from an atom, it becomes positively charged
 This is because an electron is negatively charged
 The atom becomes a positive ion
 An ion is an atom or particle with a non-zero charge
 Ions are more chemically reactive than atoms because of their positive charge
The Plum Pudding Model
 Scientists understanding of what atoms are has changed through time
 Different models have been developed, and then replaced as new evidence from experiments is
discovered
 A model is a way of describing something in order to explain the way it behaves
 Early Models of the Atom
 Greek and Indian philosophers were the first to try and describe the idea of everything being made
up of smaller parts
 The Greek philosopher, Democritus, thought that although objects could be cut into smaller pieces,
the smallest possible piece would be indivisible (it could not be cut any further)
 The Greek word for ‘indivisible’ is atomos.
Therefore, atoms were initially thought to be tiny spheres that could not be
divided before the discovery of the electron
Later models described the atom as small solid spheres
 JJ Thompson’s Plum Pudding Model
 At the end of the 19th Century, Physicist Joseph
Jon Thompson discovered the existence
of electrons
 This new evidence meant a better model of the
atom was required
 Thompson proposed the Plum Pudding model
 The atom was thought to consist of negatively
charged electrons (the ‘plums’) in a positively
charged ‘dough’ or ‘pudding’
 It was known that electrons were much smaller
than atoms, so it made sense that they should be
embedded within the larger atom
 Since electrons have a negative charge, it was
reasoned that the rest of the atom would be
positive, making the atom neutral overall
Rutherford Scattering
 Alpha Scattering
 In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding model
 Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden to
carry out the experiment
 They were directing a beam of alpha particles (He2+ ions) at a thin gold foil
 They expected the alpha particles to travel through the gold foil, and maybe change direction a
small amount
 Instead, they discovered that :
 Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the foil
 Some of the alpha particles changed direction but continued through the foil
 A few of the alpha particles bounced back off the gold foil
 The bouncing back could not be explained by the Plum Pudding model, so a new model had to be
created
When alpha particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through, some
are deflected and a very small number bounce straight back
The Nuclear Model
Ernest Rutherford made different conclusions from the findings of the experiment
The table below describes the findings and conclusions of A, B and C from the image
above:
nuclear model of the atom

 Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the

atom
 In the nuclear model:
 Nearly all of the mass of the atom is concentrated
in the center of the atom (in the nucleus)
 The nucleus is positively charged
 Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus at
a distance
 Rutherford’s nuclear model replaced the Plum
Pudding model
 The nuclear model could explain experimental
observations better than the Plum Pudding model
Bohr's Model of the Atom
 In 1913 the Danish Physicist, Niels Bohr,
came up with an improved model of the atom
 He used the nuclear model to create his model
 In the Bohr model of the atom:
 Electrons orbit the nucleus at different
distances
 The different orbit distances are called energy
levels
 Up to 2 electrons orbit in the first energy level
 Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the second
energy level
 Up to 8 electrons can orbit in the third energy
level
Successes of the Bohr Model

 The Bohr model became the accepted model because:

 It was able to explain the findings from different experiments better than the nuclear
model of the atom
 It was able to explain the processes of absorption and emission of electromagnetic
radiation
 Theoretical calculations made using the Bohr model agreed with experimental results
The Discovery of the Proton

 The nuclear model was improved when the particles within the nucleus were
discovered
 Ernest Rutherford discovered that the positively charged nucleus of all materials
could be broken down into smaller positively charged particles
 The smallest of these parts had the same charge as a Hydrogen nucleus
 This amount of charge is called the elementary charge
 He called the positively charged particles in the nucleus as protons
 ‘Proto’ means original – protons are the original unit of positive charge
An alpha particle is the nucleus of a Helium atom.
Determine the charge of an alpha particle.

 Step 1: Determine the number of protons in the particle

 The alpha particle has two protons
 Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
 There are no electrons in the nucleus of an atom
 Since the alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it has no electrons
 Step 3: Determine the charge of the alpha particle
 The total charge is the sum of the positive protons and negative
electrons
 There are 2 protons and 0 electrons
 2–0=2
 The charge on the alpha particle is +2
The Discovery of the Neutron

 After the discovery of the proton, many scientists saw evidence of another particle
in the nucleus but could not prove it
 It was about 20 years after models of the nucleus at the centre of the atom, that the
final particle was confirmed
 In 1932, James Chadwick proved the existence of neutrons in the nucleus, he
discovered:
 A neutron has a mass similar to the proton
 A neutron has no charge – it is neutral
 The discovery of the neutron gave another, better model of the atom
 A positive, dense nucleus made from neutrons and protons
 Negative electrons on different energy levels orbit the nucleus
The models of the atom changed a lot at the start of the 20th
Century. The discovery of the neutron allowed this model to be
created
Changes in the Atomic Model

 The understanding of the structure of an

atom has changed over time
 The best model of an atom is the one that
can explain the evidence of experiments
best
 The image below shows a timeline of the
different models of the atom
Comparing Atomic Models

 Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment

led to a change in the atomic model
 The Plum Pudding model was replaced
by the nuclear model
 The nuclear model could explain why the
alpha particles bounced back from the
gold foil
Radioactive Decay
 Unstable Nuclei
 Some atomic nuclei are unstable
 This is because of an imbalance in the forces
within the nucleus
 Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
 Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is
unstable
 It has two extra neutrons compared to stable
carbon-12
 Some isotopes are unstable because of their
large size or because they have too many or too
few neutrons
Radiation
 Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to
become more stable
 Radiation can be in the form of a high
energy particle or wave
 As the radiation moves away from the
nucleus, it takes some energy with it
 This reduces the overall energy of the
nucleus
 This makes the nucleus more stable
 The process of emitting radiation is
called radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay is a random process
 This means it is not possible to know
exactly when a particular nucleus will
decay
Which of the following statements
is not true?
 A    Isotopes can be unstable because they
have too many or too few neutrons
 B    The process of emitting particles or
waves of energy from an unstable nucleus
is called radioactive decay
 C    Scientists can predict when a nucleus
will decay
 D    Radiation refers to the particles or
waves emitted from a decaying nucleus
 Answer A is true. The number of
neutrons in a nucleus determines the
stability
 Answer B is true. This is a suitable
description of radioactive decay
 Answer D is true. Radiation is about
emissions. It is different to radioactive
particles
 Answer C is not true
 Radioactive decay is a random process
 It is not possible to predict precisely
when a particular nucleus will decay
Activity

 Objects containing radioactive nuclei are called sources of radiation

 Sources of radiation decay at different rates which are defined by their activity
 The activity is defined as
 The rate at which the unstable nuclei from a source of radiation decays
 Activity is measured in Becquerels
 The symbol for Becquerels is Bq
 1 Becquerel is equal to 1 nucleus in the source decaying in 1 second
A source of radiation has an activity of 2000 Bq. How many
unstable atoms decay in 2 minutes?

 Step 1: Determine the activity

 The activity of the source is 2000 Bq
 This means 2000 nuclei decay every second
 Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds
 The time period is 2 minutes
 Each minute has 60 seconds
 The time period in seconds is:
 2 × 60 = 120 seconds
 Step 3: Multiply the activity by the time period
 Activity (Bq) × Time period (s) = 2000 × 120 = 240 000
 Therefore, 240 000 unstable nuclei decay in 2 minutes
Detecting Radiation

 Radiation that is emitted from an unstable nucleus can be detected in different

ways
 For example, photographic film changes colour when exposed to radiation
 A Geiger-Muller tube is a device used to detect radiation
 Within the Geiger-Muller tube, ions are created by radiation passing through it
 The Geiger-Muller tube can be connected to a Geiger counter
 This counts the ions created in the Geiger-Muller tube
 Count-rate is the number of decays recorded each second by a detector
Detecting Radiation
A Geiger-Muller tube is used to detect radiation in a particular location. If
it counts 16,000 decays in 1 hour, what is the count rate?

 Step 1: Identify the different variables

 The number of decays is 16 000
 The time is 1 hour
 Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds
 1 hour is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds
 Time period = 1 × 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds
 Step 3: Divide the total counts by the time period in seconds
 Counts ÷ Time period = 16 000 ÷ 3600 = 4.5
 Therefore, there are 4.5 decays per second
Types of Radiation

 When an unstable nucleus decays it emits  Alpha Particles

radiation, called nuclear radiation  The symbol for alpha is α
 There are different types of radiation that  An alpha particle is the same as a helium
can be emitted:
nucleus
 Alpha  This is because they consist of two
 Beta neutrons and two protons
 Gamma  Alpha particles have a charge of +2
 Neutrons  This means they can be affected by an
electric field
Types of Radiation
 Beta Particles
 The symbol for beta is β
 Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
 They are produced in nuclei when a
neutron changes into a proton and an
electron
 Beta particles have a charge of -1
 This means they can be affected by an
electric field
 Gamma Rays
 The symbol for gamma is γ
 Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
 They have the highest energy of the different types of
electromagnetic waves
 Gamma rays have no charge
 Neutrons
 The symbol for a neutron is n
 Neutrons are one of the two particles found in the nucleus of
atoms
 Neutrons are neutral, they have no charge
Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma waves and
neutrons can be emitted from unstable nuclei
Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma
Radiation
 The properties of Alpha, Beta and
Gamma are given in this table, and then
described in more detail below
 The trend down the table shows:
 The range increases
 Penetrating power increases
 Ionization decreases
Penetrating Power
 Alpha, beta and gamma have different
properties
 They penetrate materials in different ways
 This means they are stopped by different
materials
 Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and
gamma pass through it
 Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of
aluminium
 Gamma can pass through aluminium
 Gamma rays are only partially stopped by
thick lead
Ionizing Power
 All nuclear radiation is capable
of ionizing atoms that it hits
 When an atom is ionized, the number of
electrons it has changes
 This gives it a non-zero charge
 Alpha radiation is the most ionizing form
of nuclear radiation
 This is because alpha particles have a
charge of +2
 Gamma radiation is the least ionizing
form of nuclear radiation
Range in Air

 The more ionizing a form of radiation is, the sooner it will react with the air it is
moving through
 Strongly ionizing radiation has the shortest range in air
 Alpha only travels a few centimeters in air
 Beta has a range of a few tens of centimeters
 Gamma is not absorbed by air and so has an infinite range, although it does get less
intense with distance
Uses of Radiation

 Radiation is used in a number of different ways, for example:

 Producing electricity through nuclear fission
 Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment
 Testing material
 Determining the age of ancient artefacts
 Checking the thickness of materials
 Smoke detectors
 The properties of the different types of radiation determine which one is used in a
particular application
Smoke Detectors & Alpha Particles

 Alpha particles are used in smoke

detectors
 The alpha radiation will
normally ionize the air within the
detector, creating a current
 The alpha emitter is blocked when smoke
enters the detector
 The alarm is triggered by a microchip
when the sensor no longer detects alpha
Explain why is alpha radiation used in smoke detectors, and not
beta or gamma radiation.

 Consider the different properties of alpha,

beta and gamma:
 Alpha is the most weakly penetrating
and strongest ioniser
 Beta and gamma have stronger penetratin
g power and weaker ionising power
 If beta or gamma radiation were used in
this situation then they would pass straight
through the smoke and the alarm would not
go off
 Therefore, since alpha is absorbed by
smoke, and beta and gamma are not, this
makes it most suitable for use in a smoke
detector
Alpha Decay
 During alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted
from an unstable nucleus
 A completely new element is formed in the
process
 An alpha particle is a helium nucleus
 It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 When the alpha particle is emitted from the
unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus changes
 The mass number decreases by 4
 The atomic number decreases by 2
 The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
 This is because protons have a charge of +1 each
Decay Equations
 The process of alpha decay can be shown as a decay equation
 A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
 The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
 The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
 During decay equations, the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be the
same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction
 The following equation shows Polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay
 It forms Lead-208 and an alpha particle
 An alpha particle can also be written as a helium nucleus (Symbol He)
A nucleus with 84 protons and 126 neutrons undergoes alpha decay. It forms lead, which has the
element symbol Pb.
Which of the isotopes of lead pictured is the correct one formed during the decay?

 ANSWER:  A
 Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
 The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
 The original nucleus has 84 protons and 126 neutrons
 84 + 126 = 210
 The mass number of the original nucleus is 210
 Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
 The alpha particle emitted is made of two protons and two neutrons
 Protons have an atomic number of 1, and neutrons have an atomic number of 0
 Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the atomic number by 2
 84 – 2 = 82
 The new nucleus has an atomic number of 82
 Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
 Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
 Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the mass number by 4
 210 – 4 = 206
 The new nucleus has a mass number of 206
 Beta Decay
 During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and
an electron
 The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei
 A completely new element is formed because the atomic
number changes
 A beta particle is a high-speed electron
 It has a mass number of 0
 This is because the electron has a negligible mass, compared
to neutrons and protons
 Therefore, the mass number of the decaying
nuclei remains the same
 Electrons have an atomic number of -1
 This means that the new nuclei will increase its atomic
number by 1 in order to maintain the overall atomic number
before and after the decay
 The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta
decay
 It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta particle
 Beta particles are written as an electron in this equation
A nucleus with 11 protons and 13 neutrons undergoes beta decay. It forms magnesium,
which has the element symbol Mg.
Which is the correct isotope of magnesium formed during the decay?
 ANSWER:  D
 Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
 The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
 The original nucleus has 11 protons and 13 neutrons
 11 + 13 = 24
 The mass number of the original nucleus is 24
 Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
 During beta decay a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
 The electron is emitted as a beta particle
 The neutron has an atomic number of 0 and the proton has an atomic number of 1
 So the atomic number increases by 1
 11 + 1 = 12
 The new nucleus has an atomic number of 12
 Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
 Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
 Changing a neutron to a proton will not affect the mass number
 The new nucleus has a mass number of 24 (the same as before)
Gamma Decay
 During gamma decay, a gamma ray is emitted
from an unstable nucleus
 The process that makes the nucleus less
energetic but does not change its structure
 The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of
energy, but no mass or charge
 Here is an example of Uranium-238
undergoing gamma decay
 Notice that the mass number and atomic
number of the unstable nuclei remains the same
during the decay
Random Nature of Radioactive Decay
 For example, a researcher might take some readings
of background radiation
 It cannot be predicted when a particular unstable
nucleus will decay  If the researcher reset the counter to zero, waited one
minute and then took the count
 This is because radioactive decay is
a random process, this means that:
reading and repeated the procedure, they might obtain
results such as:
 There is an equal probability of any nucleus
decaying  32    11    25    16    28
 It cannot be known which particular nucleus  The readings don’t appear to follow a particular trend
will decay next
 This happens because of the randomness of radioactive
 It cannot be known at what time a particular decay
nucleus will decay
 The rate of decay is unaffected by the
surrounding conditions
 It is only possible to estimate the probability of a
nuclei decaying in a given time period
Dice Analogy
 An analogy is a way of understanding an idea by using a
different but similar situation
 Rolling dice is a good analogy of radioactive decay because it
is similar to the random nature of radioactive decay
 Imagine someone rolling a dice and trying to get a ‘6’
 Each time they roll, they do not know what the result will be
 But they know there is a 1/6 probability that it will be a 6
 If they were to roll the dice 1000 times, it would be very
likely that they would roll a 6 at least once
 The random nature of radioactive decay can be demonstrated
by observing the count rate of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube
 When a GM tube is placed near a radioactive source, the counts
are found to be irregular and cannot be predicted
 Each count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus
 These fluctuations in count rate on the GM tube provide
evidence for the randomness of radioactive decay
Half-Life
 It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
 But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
 This is known as the half-life
 Half-life is defined as:
 The time it takes for the number of nuclei of a sample of radioactive isotopes
to decrease by half
 In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its
original level
 Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction
of a second to billions of years in length
Using Half-life
 Scientists can measure the half-lives of different isotopes accurately:
 Uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years
 This means it would take 704 million years for the activity of a uranium-235 sample to
decrease to half its original amount
 Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years
 So after 5700 years, there would be 50% of the original amount of carbon-14
remaining
 After two half-lives, or 11 400 years, there would be just 25% of the carbon-14
remaining
 With each half-life, the amount remaining decreases by half
Using Half-life

 The time it takes for the activity of the

sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is
the half-life
 It is the same length of time as it would
take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25
% activity
 The half-life is constant for a particular
isotope
Calculating Half-Life

 To calculate the half-life of a sample, the procedure is:

 Measure the initial activity, A0, of the sample
 Determine the half-life of this original activity
 Measure how the activity changes with time
 The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life
The radioisotope technetium is used extensively in medicine. The graph
below shows how the activity of a sample varies with time.
Determine the half-life of this material.

 Step 1: Draw lines on the graph to determine

the time it takes for technetium to drop to
half of its original activity
 Step 2: Read the half-life from the graph
 In the diagram above the initial activity, A0, is 8 ×
107 Bq
 The time taken to decrease to 4 × 10 7 Bq, or ½ A0,
is 6 hours
 The time taken to decrease to 2 × 10 7 Bq is
6 more hours
 The time taken to decrease to 1 × 10 7 Bq is
6 more hours
 Therefore, the half-life of this isotope is 6 hours
A particular radioactive sample contains 2 million un-decayed atoms. After a year, there is only 500
000 atoms left un-decayed.
What is the half-life of this material?

 Step 1: Calculate how many times the
number of un-decayed atoms has
halved
 There were 2 000 000 atoms to start with
 1 000 000 atoms would remain after 1
half-life
 500 000 atoms would remain after 2 half-
lives
 Therefore, the sample has undergone 2
half-lives
 Step 2: Divide the time period by the
number of half-lives
 The time period is a year
 The number of half-lives is 2
 1 year divided by 2 is half a year or 6
months
 Therefore, the half-life is 6 months
Calculating Radioactive Decay
 With each half-life, the activity of a sample  Method 2: Raising to a Power
decreases by half  Determine the number of half-lives elapsed
 The ratio of remaining radioactive nuclei after a  Use your calculator to raise ½ to the number of
period of time can be calculated in different
half-lives
ways
 For example, if 4 half-lives have elapsed:
 Method 1: Halving Method
 (1/2)4 = 1/16
 Determine the number of half-lives elapsed
 This is the same as a ratio of 1 remaining : 16
 Divide the number 1 by half for each half-life
original nuclei, or 1:16
elapsed
 For example, if 4 half-lives have elapsed:
 1 ÷ ½ ÷ ½ ÷ ½ ÷ ½ = 1 / 16
 This is the same as a ratio of 1 remaining : 16
original nuclei, or 1:16
A radioactive sample has a half-life of 3 years. What is the ratio of decayed : original nuclei, after
15 years?

 Step 1: Calculate the number of half-lives

 The time period is 15 years
 The half-life is 3 years
 15 ÷ 3 = 5
 There have been 5 half-lives
 Step 2: Raise 1/2 to the number of half-lives
 (1/2)5 = 1/32
 So 1/32 of the original nuclei are remaining
 Step 3: Write the ratio correctly
 If 1/32 of the original nuclei are remaining, then 31/32 must have decayed
 Therefore, the ratio is 31 decayed : 32 remaining, or 31:32
Contamination

 Contamination is defined as:

 The unwanted presence of materials containing radioactive atoms on other
materials
 A substance is only radioactive if it contains radioactive atoms that emit radiation
 Contamination occurs when a radioactive isotope gets onto a material where it
should not be
 This is often due to a radiation leak
 As a result of this, the small amounts of the isotope in the contaminated areas will
emit radiation and the material becomes radioactive
The Assassination of Alexander
Litvinenko
 Contamination is almost always a mistake
or an accident
 However, in 2006 a former Russian spy
was poisoned by a radioactive isotope
 His name was Alexander Litvinenko and
he was contaminated with the
isotope polonium-210
 He died because of the poisoning
Irradiation
 Irradiation is defined as:
 The process of exposing a material to alpha,
beta or gamma radiation
 Irradiating a material does not make that material
radioactive
 However, it can kill living cells
 Irradiation can be used as a method
of sterilization:
 Surgical equipment is irradiated before being used
in order to kill any micro-organisms on it before
surgery
 Food can be irradiated to kill any micro-organisms
within it
 This makes the food last longer without going
moldy
Hazards of Contamination &
Irradiation
 Irradiation is the process of exposing a material to alpha, beta or gamma radiation
 Contamination is where small amounts of the radioactive isotope leak onto the
material
 The only way a material can become radioactive is if that material becomes
contaminated
 Although irradiation can cause harm, contamination has the potential to cause far
more harm, due to the continuous exposure to radiation that it will produce
 Contamination is particularly dangerous if a radioactive source gets into the human
body
 The internal organs will be irradiated as the source emits radiation as it moves through
the body
Comparison of Irradiation and
Contamination 
Protecting against Irradiation and
Contamination
 It is important to reduce the risk of exposure to radiation
 Radiation can mutate DNA in cells and cause cancer
 Shielding is used to absorb radiation
 Lead lined suits are used to reduce irradiation for people working with radioactive
materials
 The lead absorbs most of the radiation that would otherwise hit the person
 To prevent contamination an airtight suit is used by people working in an area
where there may have been a radiation leak
 This prevents radioactive atoms from getting inside the person
Lead shielding is used when a person is getting an x-ray, as well as for
people who work with radiation. Contamination carries much greater
risks than irradiation
Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster

 Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is in Ukraine

 In 1986 an incident at the plant caused an explosion
 A large amount of radioactive material was released from the plant and went into
the air
 Hundreds of thousands of people were evacuated from the surrounding area to
protect them from being contaminated
 An exclusion zone of around 2,600 square kilometres is still in place around the
power plant
 This is because the level of radiation in the area is still very high
Studies into the Effects of Radiation

 The Discovery of Radiation

 In 1898, physicist Marie Curie discovered a new element which she
called radium
 She described the strange behaviour of radium and other similar elements as
‘radioactivity’
 Working with other physicists, including Henri Becquerel, she discovered the
phenomenon of radiation and received the Nobel Prize in 1903 for her work
 She was:
 The first woman to receive a Nobel Prize
 The first person to achieve two Nobel Prizes
 The only person ever to win the Nobel Prize in two fields
Peer Review

 Marie Curie’s findings from her experiments and her conclusions were looked at
by lots of other scientists
 This is called peer review
 All good scientific work should be published and peer-reviewed
 By publishing work everyone can benefit from it:
 Other scientists can learn from the findings
 The scientist who did the work has their work checked for accuracy
Early Uses of Radiation
 Scientists understanding of radiation has changed with time
 For example, now it is common knowledge that ionizing radiation can be harmful,
causing cancer
 But when radium was first discovered this was not known
 In fact, people thought it was good for human health
 Radium was put into lots of different products such as cosmetics, toothpaste, cleaning
products and even chocolate
 Marie Curie argued that this radium should not be used in these products until its
properties were better understood
 In 1927 the first findings that radiation exposure caused an increased risk of cancer
was published
 Radiation poisoning was the cause of Marie Curie’s death in 1934 after a lifetime
working with radioactive atoms
Background Radiation
 It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon
 Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
 However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are
exposed to on Earth
 Background Radiation
 Background radiation is defined as:
 The radiation that exists around us all the time
 There are two types of background radiation:
 Natural sources
 Man-made sources
natural sources 
 Every second of the day there is some
radiation emanating from natural
sources such as:
 Rocks
 Cosmic rays from space
 Foods
 Man-made sources of radiation increase
the background radiation levels, examples
include:
 Fallout from nuclear weapons testing and
nuclear accidents
 Exposure from medical testing
A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at different distances from a
source of radiation. Their results and a graph of the results are shown here.
Determine the background radiation count.

 Step 1: Determine the point at which the source

radiation stops being detected
 The background radiation is the amount of radiation
received all the time
 When the source is moved back far enough it is all
absorbed by the air before reaching the Geiger-
counter
 Results after 1 metre do not change
 Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to
background radiation
 Step 2: State the background radiation count 
 The background radiation count is 15 counts per
minute
Measuring Radiation Dose

 It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation

 The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured
in sieverts (Sv)
 One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
 It would cause acute radiation poisoning
 People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
 To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is
measured
 A dosemeter measures the amount of radiation in particular areas
Differences in Exposure
 The level of background radiation and
radiation dose may be affected by a
person’s occupation or location
 Some areas around the world have higher
background radiation because they are closer
to sources of radiation
 People that work with nuclear radiation
receive more radiation
 The UK limit for nuclear industry employees is
20 mSv in one year
 The diagram below compares the dose
received by some different activities
Half-Life & Risk
 The half-life is the time it takes for the
activity of a radioactive source to
decrease to half of its original value
 Different radioactive isotopes can
have very different half-lives
 For example:
 Francium-218 has a half-life of only 1
millisecond (0.001 seconds)
 Polonium-210 has a half-life of about 140
days
 Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 700
million years
 Short Half-Life Values
 If an isotope has a short half-life, the nuclei will
decay very quickly
 This means that the isotope will emit a lot of radiation
in a short amount of time
 If only a small amount of the isotope is used, having
a short half-life can be advantageous, as the material
will quickly lose its radioactivity
 If a large amount is used, however, the levels of
radiation emitted could make handling the
isotope extremely dangerous
Long Half-Life Values

 If an isotope has a long half-life then a sample of it will decay slowly

 Although it may not emit a lot of radiation, it will remain radioactive for a very long
time
 Sources with long half-life values present a risk of contamination for a much
longer time
 Radioactive waste with a long half-life is buried underground to prevent it from
being released into the environment
Medical Uses of Radiation
 Medical Tracers
 A tracer is a radioactive isotope that can be used to track the movement
of substances, like blood, around the body
 Gamma emitters are usually used for this purpose
 Gamma rays are highly penetrating and so will be able to pass through the
body and be detected outside the body
 This allows an internal image of the body to be created
 Since gamma rays are less ionizing than some other forms of radiation,
the harm caused to the patient is also minimized
 As well as choosing a gamma emitter:
 The amount of isotope used is kept to a minimum to reduce people’s
exposure to radiation
 Isotopes are chosen that have short half-lives of around a few hours: Long
enough to carry out the procedure, but not so long that they cause long term
harm
Radiotherapy
 Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using
radiation
 Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective
at treating it
 Radiation can kill living cells
 Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible to
radiation than others
 During external radiotherapy, beams of gamma rays
are directed at the cancerous tumor
 Surrounding healthy tissue tends to be shielded to avoid causing any
damage
 During internal radiotherapy, small pellets of radioactive materials can
also be inserted into a tumor exposing it directly to radiation
Sterilizing Medical Equipment
 Gamma radiation is widely used to sterilize medical equipment
 Gamma is most suited to this because:
 It is the most penetrating out of all the types of radiation
 It is penetrating enough to irradiate all sides of the instruments
 Instruments can be sterilized without removing the packaging
A new medical tracer is required for investigating the absorption of a particular substance
found in blood around the body.
Which of the different isotopes in the table would be most suitable?

 ANSWER:  C
 A suitable medical tracer must:
 Be able to penetrate out of the body
 Have a long enough half-life to move
around the body before it decays away
 Have a short enough half-life that it won’t
remain in the body at dangerous levels for
too long
 The answer is not A because alpha
radiation cannot penetrate out of the body
 The answer is not B because the half-life
is too short
 The answer is not D because the half-life
is too long
Risks of Nuclear Radiation

 The use of radiation in medicine carries risk

 Radiation can:
 Kill or damage living cells
 Cause cancer
 Cause mutations
 As a result, its use needs to be kept to a minimum
 However, the benefits of using radiation in medicine can out way the potential risks
 The risks posed by the radiation are smaller than the risks associated with leaving the
condition untreated
 For example, if a person has a cancerous tumor that is likely to kill them, then it
is less of a risk to use radiotherapy than to leave the tumor
Nuclear Fission

 There is a lot of energy stored within the nucleus of an atom

 This energy can be released in a nuclear reaction such as fission or fusion
 Nuclear fission is defined as:
 The splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller nuclei
 Isotopes of uranium and plutonium both undergo fission and are used as fuels in
nuclear power stations
 During fission, when a neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus splits
into two smaller nuclei (called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three neutrons
 Gamma rays are also emitted
 The products of fission move away very quickly
 Energy transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy
Nuclear Fission
Spontaneous Fission

 It is rare for nuclei to undergo fission without additional energy being put into the nucleus
 When nuclear fission occurs in this way it is called spontaneous fission
 Induced Fission
 Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus must first absorb a neutron
 Take, for example, uranium-235, which is commonly used as a fuel in nuclear reactors
 It has a very long half-life of 700 million years
 This means that it would have a low activity and energy would be released very slowly
 This is unsuitable for producing energy in a nuclear power station
 During induced fission, a neutron is absorbed by the uranium-235 nucleus to make
uranium-236
 This is very unstable and splits by nuclear fission almost immediately
During a particular spontaneous fission
reaction, plutonium-239 splits as shown in
the equation below:
Which answer shows the section missing
from this equation?
ANSWER:  D
Step 1: Identify the different mass and atomic numbers
• Pu (Plutonium) has mass number 239 and atomic number 94
• Pd (Palladium) has mass number 112 and atomic number 46
• Cd (Cadmium) has mass number 124 and atomic number 48
Step 2: Calculate the mass and atomic number of the missing section
• Mass number is equal to the difference between the mass numbers of
the reactants and the products
239 – (112 + 124) = 3
• Atomic number is equal to the difference between the atomic
numbers of the reactants and the products
94 – (46 + 48) = 0
• The answer is therefore not B or C
Step 3: Determine the correct notation
• Neutrons have a mass number of 1
• The answer is therefore not A
• Therefore, this must be three neutrons, which corresponds to D
Chain Reactions

 Only one extra neutron is required to

induce a Uranium-235 nucleus to split by
fission
 During the fission, it produces two or
three neutrons which move away at high
speed
 Each of these new neutrons can start
another fission reaction, which again
creates further excess neutrons
 This process is called a chain reaction
Types of chain reaction
 Controlled Chain Reactions
 In a nuclear reactor, a chain reaction is
required to keep the reactor running
 When the reactor is producing energy at the
correct rate, the number of free neutrons in the
reactor needs to be kept constant
 This means some must be removed from the
reactor
 To do this, nuclear reactors contain control
rods
 These absorb neutrons without becoming
dangerously unstable themselves
 Uncontrolled Chain Reactions
 Because each new fission reaction
releases energy, uncontrolled chain
reactions can be dangerous
 The number of neutrons available
increases quickly, so the number of
reactions does too
 A nuclear weapon uses an uncontrolled
chain reaction to release a huge amount
of energy in a short period of time as an
explosion
Nuclear Fusion

 Small nuclei can react to release energy in a

process called nuclear fusion
 Nuclear fusion is defined as:
 When two light nuclei join to form a
heavier nucleus
 This process requires extremely high
temperatures to maintain
 This is why nuclear fusion has proven very
hard to reproduce on Earth
 Stars use nuclear fusion to produce energy
 In most stars, hydrogen atoms are fused
together to form helium and produce lots of
energy
Nuclear Fusion

 The energy produced during nuclear fusion comes from a very small amount of the
particle’s mass being converted into energy
 Albert Einstein described the mass-energy equivalence with his famous equation:
 E = m × c2
 Where:
 E = energy released from fusion in Joules (J)
 m = mass converted into energy in kilograms (kg)
 c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)
 The amount of energy released during nuclear fusion is huge:
 The energy from 1 kg of hydrogen that undergoes fusion is equivalent to the energy from
burning about 10 million kilograms of coal
An example of a hydrogen fusion reaction which takes place in stars is shown here. Which of the following is a
valid reason as to why hydrogen fusion is not currently possible on Earth?
A   Hydrogen fusion produces dangerous radioactive waste
B   Hydrogen nuclei require very high temperature to fuse together
C   Hydrogen is a rare element that would be difficult to get large amounts of
D   Hydrogen fusion does not produce enough energy to be commercially viable

 ANSWER:  B
 Hydrogen nuclei have positive charges
 So two hydrogen nuclei would have a repulsive
force between them
 High temperatures are required to give the nuclei enough
energy to overcome the repulsive force
 The answer is not A because the products of the hydrogen
fusion shown in the reaction is helium
 Helium is an inert gas
 The answer is not C because hydrogen is a very abundant
element
 It is the most common element in the universe
 The answer is not D because hydrogen fusion would
produce a huge amount of energy