PERPETUATION OF LIFE

Plant and Animal reproduction

How genes work?
How genetic engineering is used to produce novel products?
PLANT REPRODUCTION

• How do plants reproduce?

Asexual Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction is natural
“cloning.” Parts of the plant, such
as leaves or stems, produce roots
and become an independent
plant.
 Asexual reproduction needs only
one parent cell.
Asexual Reproduction
 When plant species clone themselves
by asexual reproduction, it’s known as
vegetative reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
 Fragmentation is the separation of a
parent plant into parts that re-form
whole plants
 This type of asexual reproduction is used to
produce clones from cuttings (common with
houseplants)
Sexual Reproduction
 In sexual reproduction, two
separate specialized cells
unite, resulting in a new
individual. Usually ,each of the
cell comes from two different
parent organisms of the same
species.
Alternation of Generations
 Plants have a double life cycle
with two distinct forms:
Sporophyte: diploid, produce
haploid spores by meiosis.
Gametophyte: haploid, produce
gametes by mitosis.
Gametogenesis: Male
Gametogenesis: Female
Alternation of Generations
A Review of Flower Structure
 Flowers are the
reproductive organs
of plants.
Pollination
 Pollination is the placing of pollen
onto the stigma of a carpel
 Pollination is accomplished either by
wind or by animals
 A pollen grain absorbs moisture and
produces a pollen tube that extends
down the style to the ovary.
 Pollination
 The pollen grain contains the male sex cell
(gamete).
From Ovule to Seed
 After double fertilization, the ovule will develop into a seed
 The seed dehydrates as it nears the end of its maturation
From Ovary to Fruit

 After double fertilization, the

ovary will develop into a fruit
enclosing the seed
The fruit protects the seeds
inside and aids in dispersal (by
wind or animals)
 Animal
Reproduction
Figure 46.4
Animals reproductive by asexual and sexual
methods:
 Asexual is the production of offspring with genes
all from one individual, without the fusion of
gametes.
 Sexual involves formation of gametes and
fertilization, genetic variation
Asexual Methods Include:

Gemmules in Sponges Budding in Hydra Starfish Regeneration

 Parthenogenesis: an unfertilized egg
develops
Honey bees: drones are males and are
produced parthenogeneticly and female workers
and queens form from fertilized eggs.

Queen Worker (female) Drone (male)

Sexual Reproduction
 Hermaphroditism: individual has both male
and female reproductive systems

Earthworm
 Fertilization can occur externally or
internally
 Aquatic animals tend to be external
 Terrestrial animals tend to be internal
 Development can be external in the
water, external on land, or internal.
 Oviparous: lay eggs, Amniotic eggs are
terrestrial eggs
 Ovoviparous: live birth from eggs (some
sharks and snakes)
 Viviparous: live placental birth
Sexual Reproduction: An
Evolutionary Enigma
 Sexual females have half as
many daughters as asexual
females; this is the “twofold
cost” of sexual reproduction
 Despite this, almost all
eukaryotic species reproduce
sexually.
DNA : The Chemical
Basis Of Inheritance

If you unwind a
chromosome ,you
will discover a
long molecule of
DNA with about
100 000 genes.
DNA consists of two
long, twisted chains
made up of
nucleotides. Each
nucleotide contains
one base, one
phosphate molecule
and the sugar
molecule
deoxyribose. The
bases in DNA
nucleotides are
adenine, thymine,
cytosine and guanine.
Getting the Message
 So, we've described DNA—its
basic properties and how our
bodies make more of it. But
how does DNA serve as the
language of life? How do you
get a protein from a gene?
 . The first is through the process of  
transcription, where the
information coded in DNA is copied
into RNA. The RNA nucleotides are
complementary to those on the
DNA: a C on the RNA strand
matches a G on the DNA strand.
1. RNA polymerase transcribes DNA to make messenger RNA (mRNA). 2. The
mRNA sequence (dark red strand) is complementary to the DNA sequence (blue
strand). 3. On ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA) helps convert mRNA into protein. 4.
Amino acids link up to make a protein.
 The second is through the
process of translation,
wherein a protein polypeptide
chain is synthesized. An
anticodon on the tRNA is
coordinated with the mRNA’s
codon.
 GENETIC
ENGINEERING
GENETIC ENGINEERING

 Refers to the techniques

used to manipulate the DNA
of certain organisms.
 This is also referred to as
recombinant DNA
technology
 An organism whose genetic
information has been altered
using these technique is known
as GENETICALLY MODIFIED
MATERIALS (GMO)
GENETICALLY MODIFIED
MATERIALS (GMO)

 Genetic engineering has found a lot of

applications and is the heart of a
growing industry called
BIOTECHNOLOGY.
 The new products of biotechnology are
generally made by transferring genes
from one organism to another.
Example of GMO
Benefits and risks in using GMO
 The product and use of genetically modified
organism may be the solution to the problem
of a rapidly increasing population.
 However, GMO’s may pose potential risks.
Crops which have been engineered to be
resistant to pest may also be harmful to
beneficial insects.
 Concerns have been raised about allergic
reactions resulting from consumption of
genetically modified food.
THANK
YOU !