APPROACHES TO

RESEARCH AND
RESEARCH
DESIGN
NON-INTERVENTIONAL
(NON- EXPERIMENTAL)

3.1.4 NORMATIVE DESIGN

3.1.5 COHORT DESIGN
3.1.6 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
3.1.7 CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
NORMATIVE DESIGN 3

Oxford Dictionary

Normative
establishing, relating to, or deriving from a
standard or norm, especially of behavior.
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“Normative” means relating to an ideal standard
of a model, or being based on what is considered
to be the normal or correct procedure in doing
things. 
NORMATIVE DESIGN 4

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Normative research differs from descriptive studies

because the target is not only to gather facts but also to
point out in which respects the object of study can be
improved. Usually the project even includes planning an
approach for carrying out the necessary improvements.
 
NORMATIVE DESIGN 5

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Normative research and development usually aims not only at

improving the present state of things as it is evaluated today, but
at creating a state of things which people continue to accept in the
future as well. It is also possible that this improvement need not
be achieved right away but at a certain moment in the future.

For example, when the objective is to create a successful new

product, the decisive point of time when the product has to satisfy
the customers is the period when the future new product is being
marketed - which period will perhaps begin in a year of the
present, and it ends two years later.
 
 STYLES OF NORMATIVE DESIGN 6

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1.General normative research produces theory of practice for a

professional activity, such as design, which can consist of
recommendations, rules, standards, algorithms, advices or other tools
for improving the object of study. It does not necessarily include any
practical operations of development.
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2. Normative case study purports to find out methods to ameliorate physically

the object, for example by reducing known human problems in the daily lives
and work processes of people, by developing an activity or a new product.
 When the project includes also carrying out the improvements, it is called
"research and development"
COHORT DESIGN 8

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The word “cohort” means a group of

people.

Oxford Dictionary

a group of people banded together

or treated as a group.
COHORT DESIGN 9

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Cohort studies are a type of research

design that follow groups of people
over time. Researchers use data from
cohort studies to understand human
health and the environmental and
social factors that influence it.
COHORT DESIGN 10

Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library

A study design where one or more samples (called

cohorts) are followed prospectively and subsequent
status evaluations with respect to a disease or
outcome are conducted to determine which initial
participants exposure characteristics (risk factors) are
associated with it. As the study is conducted, outcome
from participants in each cohort is measured and
relationships with specific characteristics determined
TYPES OF COHORT DESIGN 11

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PROSPECTIVE
A forward-looking cohort study is also known as a
prospective cohort study.

RETROSPECTIVE
A backward-looking cohort study is also called a
retrospective cohort study
COHORT DESIGN
12

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EXAMPLE OF COHORT DESIGN 13

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For a prospective cohort study, if the researcher wanted to study rates of

heart disease in older age, they would choose an age group of younger adults
with similar characteristics who do not have heart disease to use as their
baseline.

For a retrospective cohort study, researchers analyze a group of people who

already have certain characteristics. They then look at existing data to jump
back in time. For example, they might look at a group of older adults with
heart disease. Then they would analyze data about the group members’
medical history to see what factors could have contributed.
LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
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In a longitudinal study, researchers repeatedly

examine the same individuals to detect any
changes that might occur over a period of
time.
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Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational
research that involves studying the same variables
over an extended period of time. They are long-
term studies that can take place over weeks,
months, or sometimes even years
 TYPES LONGITUDINAL DESIGN 15

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1.Panel study: A longitudinal study that involves sampling a cross-
section of individuals at a specified interval of time for an extended
period. The key feature of a panel study is that it repeatedly collects
data from the same sample at different points in time.

For example:
A researcher wants to study the correlation between age and the
spending habit of individuals. A panel study is performed by
circulating questionnaires among the same participants for a period
of five or ten years to draw a relationship between age and spending
habits.
 TYPES LONGITUDINAL DESIGN 16

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2.Cohort study Cohort studies are a type of research design that follow groups of
people over time.

For Example:
The Nurses’ Health Study was originally set up in 1976 to study the potential
long-term consequences of using oral contraceptives on breast cancer. Women
taking oral contraceptives acted as the cohort in this study. The study was later
extended to the assess the impact of lifestyle and behavioral factors on 30 other
diseases. The most recent survey from this study was conducted in 2010.
 TYPES LONGITUDINAL DESIGN 17

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3.Retrospective study: A longitudinal study that utilizes

data obtained by previous research studies. Data sources
can include databases, medical records, or interviews.

For example:
A dietician conducting a retrospective study may analyze
medical records of participants to see whether those who
lost weight had performed regular exercise or not
LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
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CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
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A cross-sectional design is a type of research design
that captures information from a population at a single
point in time. The information which is obtained from
the population can be from a group of participants
with varied characteristics known as variables. These
variables, which are observed without influencing
them, may include age, gender, income, education,
geographic location, and ethnicity, as well as others.
The variables used in a particular study are
determined by the research being carried out and what
the study aims to prove.
TYPES CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
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1.Descriptive study: A descriptive cross-sectional study

determines how regularly, widely, or intensely the
investigated variable of interest impacts a specific
demographic at a given point in time.

For example,
In market research, researchers can gather observations to
investigate trends such as spending behavior at a given point
in the year. Researchers might use this information to launch
new goods and services. The researchers in such a study are
not concerned with why these trends occur; but rather, they
are focused on what trends exist in the market.
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
21

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2.Analytical cross-sectional study: An analytical cross-sectional study

examines the relationship between two related or unrelated variables and
attempts to explain how or why a particular outcome may arise at a given
point in time.

For example:
A researcher is studying iron deficiency in adolescent girls. A descriptive
study would only focus on the occurrence of iron deficiency among young
girls. An analytical study, on the other hand, would examine factors such as
diet, socioeconomic status, and educational background in addition to iron
deficiency levels to explain why some girls are more likely to be iron
deficient than other adolescent girls.
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
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LONGITUDINAL DESIGN VS.
23

CROSS- SECTIONAL DESIGN

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 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN VS.
24

CROSS- SECTIONAL DESIGN

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A cross-sectional study attempts to collect data from several

subjects at a single point in time. A longitudinal study, on the
other hand, focuses on collecting data from the same
subjects in multiple sessions, the subjects being binned into
smaller groups containing a common trait. A longitudinal
study is more expensive to perform in comparison to a
cross-sectional study and is associated with higher chances
of participants dropping out of a study.
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