Adama Science and Technology University

Adama Science and Technology
University
School of Mechanical, Chemical and
Materials Engineering
Chemical Engineering Program

Heat and Mass Transfer (ChE 3203)
R.M
(MSc)
1 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022
1. Transport Phenomena
Things only move when they are forced to move! A bicycle only
moves when a force is applied in the form of pedaling.
All sorts of transport only take place when a force, called a

driving force, is applied.
Transport of mass, energy, momentum, volume and electricity

only takes place when a driving force is applied.
Transport can generally be expressed as a flux “J”, which is

given by the amount of mass, energy, momentum, volume or
charges that are transported pr. area pr. time.
The transported amount is proportional to the applied driving force,
which can be expressed by a linear phenomenological equation of
the following kind:

The transport direction in this case is in the x-direction. In this text

we are only dealing with the one-dimensional case.
Analogies to two- and three dimensional cases can be found later in

this subject.
The driving force is expressed as the gradient of X (concentration,

temperature, velocity, pressure or voltage) along an x-axis parallel
to the transport direction.
 Since transport always goes “downhill” from areas of high
concentration, temperature, velocity etc. to areas of low
concentration, temperature, velocity etc., a minus-sign is placed
on the right side of the equation because the flux should be
positive when the gradient dX/dx is negative.
The proportionality constant A is called a phenomenological

coefficient and is related to many well known physical terms
associated with different kinds of transport.
Table 1 lists different kinds transport together with the driving

forces, phenomenological flux equations, names of the
phenomenological coefficients, units of the different fluxes and
the common name for the transport phenomena.
Can any body tell me which example explains which
phenomena?

1.2 Different kinds of transport
1.2.1 Diffusivity, Transport of mass
Diffusion of mass is also known as mass diffusion, concentration
diffusion or ordinary diffusion. We are talking about molecular mass
transport taking place as diffusion of a component A through a
medium consisting of component B.
The diffusion coefficient DAB determines how fast the diffusion takes
place. The subscript of the diffusion coefficient tells that the
diffusion is associated with the diffusion of A through B.
Figure 1: Build-up of concentration profile in a silicone
rubber plate

The blue boxes symbolize a barrier consisting of a plate of silicone rubber.
The left and right sides are completely separated by the plate. The silicone
rubber plate is assumed to consist of component B.
Initially the concentration of component A is zero at both sides of the plate.

At time t = 0 the concentration of A at the left side is suddenly raised to cA0 at
which it is held constant. Component A starts to diffuse through B because of
the driving force that exists in the form of a concentration difference.
 Thus the concentration of A increases in the silicone rubber as a function of

the distance x inside the rubber and the time t. The concentration of A at the
right side is kept at zero by continually removing the amount of A that has
diffused through the silicone rubber. At large values of t, a steady state linear
concentration profile has been reached. At this stage the concentration of A is
only a function of the distance x inside the silicone rubber plate.
At steady state the flux of component A through the silicone
rubber is given by the flux equation from Table 1, which is called
Fick’s law of diffusion:
The flux JA is the diffusive flux of component A in the direction x

through the silicone rubber plate.
The gradient dcA/dx is the concentration gradient of component A

inside the rubber plate which is the driving force. DAB is as
mentioned earlier the diffusion coefficient of A in B.

The value of the diffusion coefficient DAB determines how fast the
linear steady state concentration profile develops:
The larger the diffusion coefficient D AB is, the faster the linear
steady state concentration profile is reached. If D AB is small, the flux
of A is small and the time before steady state is reached is large.
The diffusion coefficient has the units of length2 pr. time:SI unit
At constant temperatures and constant low pressures the diffusion

coefficient for a binary gas mixture is almost independent of the
composition and can thus be considered a constant. It is inversely
proportional to the pressure and increases with the temperature

1.2.2 Thermal conductivity, Transport of energy
Energy in the form of heat can be transported when a driving force
in the form of a temperature difference is applied.
 The flux of heat is proportional to the applied driving force and

the proportionality constant is called the thermal conductivity k.
We can talk about molecular energy transport, and a situation with
transport of heat through a one layer window is sketched in Figure
2.
Figure 2: Build-up of temperature profile in a window

Initially the temperature on both sides of the window is zero (or
room temperature) which means that no heat flow through the
window.
Suddenly at t = 0 the temperature on the left side of the window

is increased to T0. Because of the temperature difference between
the two sides of the window heat starts to flow through the
window from the warm side to the cold side.
The temperature on the right side is kept at zero. Before steady

state is reached the temperature in the window is a function of
both distance x and time t. Dependent of how good or bad an
isolator the window is, a linear steady state temperature profile is
reached after a period of time.
At steady state the flux of heat/energy through the window is
given by the flux equation from Table 1, which is called
Fourier’s law of heat conduction:
The flux Jh is the flux of heat/energy in the direction x through

the window. The gradient dT/dx is the temperature gradient
which is the driving force.
 The term k is as mentioned earlier the thermal conductivity of

the window. The value of the thermal conductivity together with
other factors determines how fast the linear steady state
temperature profile develops.

These other factors are the density and the heat capacity Cp of the
window. The thermal conductivity, the density and the heat
capacity can together be expressed at the thermal diffusivity α :
It can be seen that the thermal diffusivity has the same units as
the ordinary diffusivity D and can be thought of a diffusion
coefficient for energy/heat. The thermal diffusivity of the
window thus determines how fast the steady state temperature
profile is established:
The larger the thermal diffusivity (of the window) is, the faster the
linear steady state temperature profile is reached. If is small, the
flux of heat/energy is small and the time before steady state is
16 reached is large.
Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022
The thermal conductivity of gasses is of course dependent on not
only the pressure but also on the temperature. Thermal
conductivities of liquids and solids are also temperature
dependent but almost pressure independent in the pressure range
where they are almost incompressible.

1.2.3 Viscosity, Transport of momentum
Momentum can be transferred when a driving force in the form of a
velocity difference exists. This can be explained by describing the situation
sketched in Figure 3, which shows an example of molecular momentum
transport.
A Newtonian fluid (the term Newtonian will be explained in a moment) is

contained between two plates. It could be water or ethanol for example.
Initially the plates and the fluid are a rest. At time t = 0 the plate to the left
is suddenly set at motion with a constant velocity v0 it the y-direction.
The fluid just next to the left plate will then also start to move in the y-
direction. That way the fluid throughout the whole distance between the
plates will eventually be set at motion. The right plate is kept at rest. The
fluid just next to the right plate will all the time not move because “no slip”
is assumed between the fluid an the plate.
Figure 3: Build-up of velocity profile in a Newtonian fluid

At small values of t the velocity in the y-direction is a function of
both the time and distance x in the fluid. After a while a linear
steady state velocity profile is established and thus the velocity in
the y-direction is only a function of the distance x in the fluid.
A constant force is required to keep the left plate at motion. This

force is proportional to the velocity v0, the area of the plate and
inversely proportional to the distance between the two plates.
The force pr. area ration can be thought of as a flux of y-
momentum (momentum in the y-direction) in the x-direction.
 The proportionality constant is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

(the dynamic viscosity can also be denoted with the symbol ).
The viscosity of a fluid is then associated with a resistance
towards
20 Adamaflow.
Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022
At steady state the momentum flux (force in y-direction pr. area)
through the fluid is given by the flux equation from Table 1,
which is called Newton’s law of viscosity:
Equation ( 5 ) only applies to fluids with molecular weights less

than about 5000. Such fluids are called Newtonian fluids because
they are described by Newton’s law of viscosity. The viscosity of
such fluids is independent of the velocity gradient which is not
the case for non-Newtonian fluids.

The flux Jn is the flux of y-momentum in the direction x through
the fluid. The gradient dv/dx is the velocity gradient which is the
driving force. Remember that the velocity is in the y-direction
and the momentum flux is in the x-direction.
This gradient is often referred to as the shear rate. The term is as

mentioned earlier the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The value of
the dynamic viscosity together with density of the fluid
determines how fast the linear steady state velocity profile
develops.
The dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid can together
be expressed at the kinematic viscosity :

The kinematic viscosity has the same units as the ordinary
diffusivity D (see section 2.1 Diffusivity, Transport of mass) and
the thermal diffusivity (see section 2.2 Thermal conductivity,
Transport of energy).
Thus the kinematic viscosity can be thought of a diffusion

coefficient for velocity. The kinematic viscosity of the fluid thus
determines how fast the steady state velocity profile is
established:
The larger the kinematic viscosity (of the fluid) is, the faster the
linear steady state velocity profile is reached. If is small, the flux of
momentum is small and the time before steady state is reached is
large.
The dynamic viscosity is very temperature and pressure
dependent. For liquids the dynamic viscosity decreases with
increasing temperature while for low density gasses the viscosity
increases with increasing temperature. The dynamic viscosity
normally increases with increasing pressure. Further temperature
and pressure dependency will not be given in this text.

1.3 Heat ,Thermodynamics and Temperature
Heat, Q, is thermal energy transferred from a hotter system to a

cooler system by means of different modes .
It is the thermal energy of molecules inside a system that is used

to increase the their internal energy (rotational ,vibrational or
translational).
Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from

one region to another as a result of temperature gradient.

1.3. basic concept of heat transfer
Cont..
 Heat is the movement of thermal energy from a substance

at a higher temperature to another substance at a lower
temperature.
There are different theories that explain heat;
 Whenever there is an exchange of heat, heat is
consumed (heat lost by hot bodies is, always equal
to heat gained by cold body)
 The heat flow takes place from higher to lower
temperature
 The substance expand on heating
Cont…
 In order to change the state of body from solid to
liquid or liquid to gas without rise in Temperature,
certain amount of heat is required.
 When body is heated or cooled , its weight does
not change.
According to the modern or dynamic theory ’’heat is
form of energy’’.
“The molecule of substance are parallel in motion.
This means kinetic energy per molecule of the
substance is proportional to its absolute temperature”.
Cont…
 Absolute temperature is temperature
measured using the Kelvin scale where
zero is absolute zero.
 The zero point is the temperature at
which particles of matter have their
minimum motion and can become no
colder (minimum energy).
How is heat formed?
A molecule may consist of one or two or many
atoms depend on nature of materials.
 The atoms in molecule vibrate with respect to
one another, consequently a molecule form
“vibrational energy”
 The whole molecule may rotate about one or
more axes, so it can form “rotation energy”
and
 A molecule has “translational energy” due to
its motion.
Cont…
Because, the particles are in motion, they will have kinetic

energy. So the kinetic energy is the sum of;
 Vibrational energy
 Rotational energy and
 Translational energy
Therefore, heat energy given to substance is used in increasing
its internal energy.
 Increasing its internal energy causes increase in kinetic
energy of molecule.
Cont….
The particles will not all have the same energy and the energy
of the particles is constantly changing as they undergo changes
in speed.
In solid, a metal for example, In liquid, the atoms or In a gas, the atoms or molecules
the particles atoms arranged in molecules, are further apart are further apart and have
an orderly array. The atoms are than in a solid, and are not little interaction with one
relatively close to one another arranged in any special order.
There is less interaction another. The motion of these
and the motion of each atom is
between the molecules, and particles is confined by the walls
restricted by its interaction with
other.
they are free to move in any of the containing vessels.
direction.
APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Design of thermal and nuclear power plant including;
 Heat engine
 Steam generator
 Condenser
 Heat exchange equipment
 Catalytic converter
 Heat shields for space vehicle
 Furnaces
 Electronics
 Refrigeration and air-conditioning
 Automobiles / aircraft design
Cont…
 Internal combustion engines
 Design of cooling system for electric motors, generator and
transformer
 Construction of dams and structure; minimization of building
heat losses using improved insulation techniques
 Thermal control of space vehicle
 Heat treatment of metal and
 Dispersion of atmosphere pollutant
Why do we study heat and heat transfer?
Therefore the study of heat transfer is carried out for the
following purpose;
 To estimate the rate of flow of energy as heat
through the boundary of system under study.
To determine the temperature field under

steady and transient condition.
B. THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work
and those properties of matter that relate to heat and work
which are in equilibrium.
It describe state and changes of state of physical system.
Thermodynamic Systems is any system, we must first clearly
define the system under study and distinguish that system from
its surrounding.
It’s the system that interact with surroundings mechanically,
chemically or thermally.
Cont…
I. System
A system is finite quantity of matter or prescribed region of
space.
The system in terms of quantity of matter (a closed or fixed
mass system or the region of space (an open or fixed volume
system) chosen for study.
II. Surrounding
The region outside of the system of interest is called the
surrounding.
III. Boundary
The real or imaginary surface that separate the system from
its surrounding is called boundary.
The boundary may be boundary fixed or movable.
Cont…
Closed system Open system

Law of thermodynamics
The four laws of thermodynamics define

fundamental physical quantities (temperature,
energy, and entropy) that characterize
thermodynamic systems at thermal equilibrium.
The four laws of thermodynamics are:
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
 If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with
a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other. This law helps define the
concept of temperature.
Cont…
 First law of thermodynamics
When energy passes, as work, as heat, or with matter,
into or out from a system, the system's internal energy
changes in accord with the law of
conservation of energy.
The second law of thermodynamics indicates the
irreversibility of natural processes.
The second law is applicable to a wide variety of
processes, reversible and irreversible.
when two bodies initially of different temperatures
come into thermal connection then heat always flows
from the hotter body to the colder one.
Cont…
Third law of thermodynamics

 Is sometimes stated as; the entropy of a
perfect crystal of any pure substance
approaches zero as the temperature
approaches absolute zero.
 At zero temperature the system must be in
a state with the minimum thermal energy.
The difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer

"Thermodynamics" deals with the amount of energy in
form of heat or work during a process and only considers
the end states in equilibrium. It will not give information
about how long it will take to reach to the final state in
equilibrium. While,
"Heat Transfer" deals with the rate of energy transfer thus,
it gives idea of how long a heat transfer will occur? Heat
transfer deals with time and non equilibrium phenomena.
Heat can only transfer when there is a temperature
gradient exists in a body and which is indication of non
equilibrium phenomena.

In short, Thermodynamics gives "Why" a process will occur and Heat
Transfer will tell, "How" a process will occur when there is a concern
about transfer of heat.
To support all these arguments, Thermodynamics uses following laws,
•Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
•First law of Thermodynamics
•Second Law of Thermodynamics
•Third Law of Thermodynamics
While, Heat Transfer uses,
•Fourier's Law (Heat conduction)
•Newtons Law of Cooling (Heat convection)
•Planck's Law (Thermal Radiation)
•Stephan Boltzman's Law (Thermal Radiation)
•Wein's Law (Thermal Radiation)
•Kirchoff's Law (Thermal Radiation)
•Lambart's Law (Thermal Radiation)
C. Temperature
The atoms and molecules in a substance do not always travel
at the same speed. This means that there is a range of energy
(the energy of motion) among the molecules. In a gas, for
example, the molecules are traveling in random directions at a
variety of speeds - some are fast and some are slow.
Temperature is a measure of the average heat or thermal
energy of the particles in a substance. Since it is an average
measurement, it does not depend on the number of particles in
an object.
In that sense it does not depend on the size of it.
For example, the temperature of a small cup of boiling water
is the same as the temperature of a large pot of boiling water.
Measuring The Temperature
Since molecules are so small, you must use an indirect
method to measure the kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance.
As heat is added to a substance, the molecules move more
rapidly. This increased motion causes a small increase in
the volume, or amount of space, taken up by most
materials. There are devices that use the expansion of a
substance to give an indirect measure of temperature. Such
devices are called Thermometers.
cont…
There are three types of temperature scales commonly
used today:
Celsius
Fahrenheit and
Kelvin.
We are used to expressing temperature with degrees
Fahrenheit (F). Scientists often use degrees Celsius (C),
but the Kelvin (K) is the SI unit for temperature. (learn
the relationship between these three scales)
1.4. Mode of heat transfer
 Thermal energy in the form of heat can move in three ways.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
1. conduction
 Conduction is The transfer of heat from one particle of matter to
another by direct particle to particle contact.
 Conduction occurs primarily in solids because the particles are
tightly packed together.
 The particles themselves DO NOT change positions.
 In solid the heat is conducted by the following two mechanism
By lattice vibration (the fastest moving molecule or atoms in the
hottest part of body transfer heat by impact some of their energy
to adjacent molecule)
By the transport of free electrons (free electrons provides an
energy flux in the direction of decreasing temperature. For metals
especially good electrical conductor, the electronic mechanism is
responsible for the major portion of heat flux except at low
temperature).
Cont…
In case of gases the mechanism of heat conduction is simple;
 The kinetic energy of a molecule is function of

temperature. The molecule are in continuous random motion
exchanging energy and momentum. When molecule from
the high temperature region collides with molecule from the
low temperature region, it loses energy by collision.
In liquids the mechanism of heat is nearer of gases.
 However, the molecule are more closely spaced and
intermolecular forces come into play.

Cont…..
Example: In metal pan water being heated on an electric stove.
Cont…
Examples of Conduction
2. convection
Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid mixing of
one portion of the fluid with another.
 Convection is possible only in fluid medium and is
directly linked with the transport of medium itself
 Convection constitutes the macroform of heat transfer
since macroscopic particle of fluid moving in space
cause the heat exchange.
The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depend
largely upon the maxing motion of the fluid.
This mode of heat transfer is met with in situation where
energy is transferred as heat to flowing fluid at any surface
over which flow occurs.
CONT…
The Two types of convective heat transfer may be
distinguished as;
 Free or natural convection: when fluid motion
is caused by buoyancy forces that result from
the density variations due to variations of
thermal temperature in the fluid.
 Examples - the upward flow of air due to a
fire or hot object and the circulation of water
in a pot that is heated from below.
Cont…
Cont….
Cont….
 Forced convection: when a fluid is forced to
flow over the surface by an internal source such
as fans, by stirring, and pumps, creating an
artificially induced convection current.
3. Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat through space or matter by
means other than conduction or convection
Radiation heat is thought of as electromagnetic waves or
quanta (as convenient) an emanation of the same nature as
light and radio waves.
All bodies radiate heat; so a transfer of heat by radiation
occur because hot body emit more heat than it receives and a
cold body receives more heat than it emits.
Radiant energy requires no medium for propagation and will
pass through vacuum.
Cont…
How does heat energy get from the Sun to the Earth?
Cont…
Examples of Radiation
1. Heat from Sun 2. Cooking in a microwave
3. Infrared heat lamp 4. Heat from fire

Compare and contrast
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Transfer of energy by
waves
• Only radiant energy
that is absorbed
becomes thermal
energy Conduction
• Shiny/light colors-
reflect
• Dull/dark colors-
• Transfer of
absorb energy by bulk
movement of
Radiation matter (fluids)
• Currents (wind,
water)
• Hot air balloon
Convection
1.5. heat transfer law
1. Fourier’s Laws of Heat Conduction
Fourier’s laws of heat conduction is empirical law states as;
 “The rate of law of heat through simple homogenous solid
is directly proportional to the area of section at right angle
to the direction of heat flow and to the change of
temperature with respect to length of the path of the heat
flow”
 Mathematically, it expressed by the equation:
Q α A.
Q = heat flow through a body per
unit time in watts (W)
A= Surface area of heat flow
(perpendicular to the direction of flow),
Cont…
dT= temperature difference of the faces of
block of thickness dx through which heat
flow ˚C or K. and
dx= thickness of body in the direction of flow
in, m
Thus, Q = kA. …………………………………..1.1
Where, constant proportionality and is known as
thermal conductivity of the body
The –ve sign of equation 1.1 to care decreasing temperature
along with the direction of increasing thickness or direction
of heat flow.
The temperature gradient is always negative and value of
Cont…
Assumption: the following assumption on which fourier’s law is
based;
i. Conduction of heat takes place under steady state
condition
ii. The heat flow is unidirectional
iii. The temp. gradient is constant and temp. profile
in linear
iv. There is no internal heat generation
v. The bounding surface are isothermal in
character.
vi. The material is homogeneous and isotropic (i.e
the value of thermal conductivity is constant in
all direction)
Thermal conductivity of materials
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of
heat (Q) transmitted through a unit thickness (t) in a
direction normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to
a unit temperature gradient (ΔT) under steady state
conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent
only on the temperature gradient.
k=
For the value k=1 when Q=1, A=1, and =1
K= (unit of k; W. )= Or
Cont…
The materials with high thermal conductivity are
good conductor of heat whereas materials with low
thermal conductivity are good thermal insulator.
Conduction of heat occurs most readily in pure
metals
o Less in alloy and
o Much less in non metal
Cont….
The thermal conductivity (property of materials)
depends essentially upon the following factors;
 Material structure
 Moisture content
 Density of the materials
 Pressure and temperature
Cont…
Approximate values of thermal conductivity for some
common materials.
Factors affecting the thermal conductivity of a material
1. Material structure: since thermal conductivity is a property of
a material it is directly linked to the structure of a material.(i.e
the atomic bond length and pattern, the space between the
molecules ,the phonon or lattice scattering etc….) the more
packed the molecules (atoms) the better the conductivity e.g
diamond and charcoal
2. Moisture content : for nonmetallic solids thermal conductivity
of a damp material is considerably higher than that of dry
material.

3. Density of the materials : conductivity increases with
increase in density in nonmetallic solids. It can play a major
factor, especially in gases, but for solids the main factor is the
way the material's atoms and molecules are bonded together and
their arrangement. For example, diamond is a very good
conductor of heat because of it's very ordered structure. Copper is
MUCH less dense than lead, but, as you have in your post, the
thermal conductivity of copper is an order of magnitude greater
than lead.
4. Pressure and temperature

Theoretical summery

Practice exercise on conduction

Practice exercise on convection

Practice exercise on radiation


Adama Science and Technology University

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Adama Science and Technology University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Adama Science and Technology

Chemical Engineering Program

All sorts of transport only take place when a force, called a

Transport of mass, energy, momentum, volume and electricity

Transport can generally be expressed as a flux “J”, which is

The transport direction in this case is in the x-direction. In this text

Analogies to two- and three dimensional cases can be found later in

The driving force is expressed as the gradient of X (concentration,

The proportionality constant A is called a phenomenological

Table 1 lists different kinds transport together with the driving

6 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

8 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

Initially the concentration of component A is zero at both sides of the plate.

 Thus the concentration of A increases in the silicone rubber as a function of

The flux JA is the diffusive flux of component A in the direction x

The gradient dcA/dx is the concentration gradient of component A

10 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

At constant temperatures and constant low pressures the diffusion

11 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

 The flux of heat is proportional to the applied driving force and

13 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

Suddenly at t = 0 the temperature on the left side of the window

The temperature on the right side is kept at zero. Before steady

The flux Jh is the flux of heat/energy in the direction x through

 The term k is as mentioned earlier the thermal conductivity of

15 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

17 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

A Newtonian fluid (the term Newtonian will be explained in a moment) is

19 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

A constant force is required to keep the left plate at motion. This

 The proportionality constant is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

Equation ( 5 ) only applies to fluids with molecular weights less

21 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

This gradient is often referred to as the shear rate. The term is as

22 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

Thus the kinematic viscosity can be thought of a diffusion

25 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

Heat, Q, is thermal energy transferred from a hotter system to a

It is the thermal energy of molecules inside a system that is used

Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from

26 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

 Heat is the movement of thermal energy from a substance

Because, the particles are in motion, they will have kinetic

To determine the temperature field under

Closed system Open system

The four laws of thermodynamics define

Third law of thermodynamics

42 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

43 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

 The kinetic energy of a molecule is function of

 However, the molecule are more closely spaced and

intermolecular forces come into play.

3. Infrared heat lamp 4. Heat from fire

69 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

70 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

72 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

78 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

82 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

85 Adama Sceince and Technology University 11/28/2022

You might also like