BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION -V
CAUSES OF FAILURE IN CONCRETE
STRUCTURE
The main factors that affect the failure of concrete structures are:
• Incorrect selection of materials
• Errors in design calculation and detailing
• Improper construction techniques and insufficient quality control and
supervision
• Chemical attacks on concrete structures
• External mechanical factors
Incorrect Selection of Concrete Materials Causes Failure of
Structure

•  Failure in the material selection is one of the major factors that detrimentally
affect the strength and safety of structure and eventually could lead to failure. 
• To build a structure that meet safety and strength requirements, it is necessary
to execute construction process according to the applicable codes and
specifications. Normally, the selection of materials required for given project
should be acceptable according to code specifications to use suitable materials
• If materials are selected properly and meet code requirements, then they will
meet the conditions of the place where the material is placed such as soil
conditions. 
Errors in Design Calculation and Detailing of Concrete Structures

• It is considerably important to practice substantial care while design

calculation is conducted otherwise undesired events and costly structural
improvement would prevail. 
• That is why it is recommended to conduct an entire design check to guarantee
that reinforced concrete section sizes, thicknesses, and reinforcement spacing
and sizes are sufficient to support the most critical load combinations.
• Not only does the check need to involve entire stability of the structure but also
its serviceability.
Improper Construction Techniques and Insufficient Quality Control and
Supervision Causes Failure

• Improper construction methods, poor workmanship, low quality

material and insufficient supervision of construction process would
cause several problems that reduces the performance of concrete
structures substantially and subsequent failure
Construction Issues That Influence Failure of Concrete Structure

• Incorrect placement of steel

• This error makes concrete cover smaller which in turn leave the steel bars
unprotected. Disposition of steel bars may lead the member to fail when it
is loaded completely.
• Inadequate cover to reinforcement
• If required cover thickness is not provided, then aggressive elements can
penetrate the member and eventually reinforcement bars will deteriorate
and concrete spalling will occur.
• Incorrectly made construction joints
• Poor compaction and inadequate preparation are common problems of
joint construction. If such joints are not constructed properly, it would
become a path for moisture to penetrate concrete.
• Grout leakage
• When joints of formworks are not sealed properly, then grout and fine
material would move out of concrete mixture. As a result, a considerably
porous concrete will be produced.
• Poor compaction
• This would create porous honeycombed concrete which should be tackled
immediately by removing it and then recast that part of the element.
• Segregation of concrete mixture

• Segregation would distort concrete texture and sometimes increase porosity.

• Poor curing
• The required strength of concrete cannot be attained if curing is not executed
properly.
• High quantity water content
• Excessive water content makes concrete permeable, porous and reduces its
strength. So, this problem should be avoided.
 Chemical Attacks on Concrete Structures
• There are different types of chemical attacks that considerably affect
strength of the structure. Various types of chemical attacks and their
influence on the structure
Types of Chemical Attacks Effect of Chemical Attacks on Concrete Structure
Chloride ions penetrate concrete during and after
Chloride construction. High concentration of chloride
corrodes steel bars and deteriorates concrete.
It disintegrates concrete and create path for
Sulfate
harmful substances to attack reinforcements.
Carbonation Carbonation attack and deteriorate steel bars
Alkali silica reaction produces a gel which its
Alkali silica reaction volume increases and consequently disintegrates
concrete.
It strongly affect concrete and removes part of set
Acids
cement
External Mechanical Factors Causing Concrete Structure
Failure

• There are various types of exterior or mechanical factors that influence

concrete failure for example restraints against movement, abrasion,
wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, overloading, structural
alteration, fire resistance and settlement
Types of reinforced concrete structures collapse
1.Crushing failure of columns: When reinforced concrete columns are
subjected to intense loading conditions, both steel and concrete yield and the
column fails. Earthquake loads that apply lateral stresses highly affect the solidity
of the column which may get crushed and lose its bearing capacity. If the structure
is isostatic the framework will behave like a mechanism.
• Shear cracking of columns: Reinforced concrete columns may
undergo shear failure mostly caused by seismic forces. The cracks
usually appear diagonally and may take a spiral shape when the
structure experience twisting
• Cracking of column-beam junction: The joint of a column and a
beam usually experiences high bending and axial stresses which
may lead to severe cracking reducing the strength of the junction.
• Short Column Effect: This phenomenon is related to the construction of
infills walls attached to the columns. The interaction of the column with the wall
leads to high stress concentration. The column is restricted by the wall and
therefore, its lateral deformability (compared to its height) is highly increased.
Consequently, a short column is much stiffer than other columns and
accumulates higher shear stress that leads to diagonal cracking and failure.
• Infill Walls collapse: Infill walls that are connected with the
building's framework may collapse. To prevent such failures,
walls should be tightly jointed with the concrete beams and
columns.
• Gable Frames failure: Gable frames are commonly used for large
structures such as schools and cinema halls. They are prone to
collapse and they do not present any residual strength.
 Types of Concrete Defects

• 1. Cracking
• Cracks are formed in concrete due to many reasons but when these cracks are very deep,
it is unsafe to use that concrete structure. Various reasons for cracking are improper mix
design, insufficient curing, omission of expansion and contraction joints, use of high
slump concrete mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc. 
• To prevent cracking, use low water – cement ratio and maximize the coarse aggregate in
concrete mix, admixtures containing calcium chloride must be avoided. Surface should
be prevented against rapid evaporation of moisture content. Loads must be applied on the
concrete surface only after gaining its maximum strength.
• 2. Crazing
• Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking, is the formation of closely
spaced shallow cracks in an uneven manner.
• Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of concrete due to high
temperatures or if the mix contains excess water content or due to insufficient
curing.
• Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to
resist absorption of water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface
from rapid temperature changes.
• 3. Blistering
• Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on concrete
surface due to entrapped air under the finished concrete surface.
• It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or presence of excess
entrapped air in mix or due to improper finishing. Excessive evaporation of
water on the top surface of concrete will also cause blistering.
• It can be prevented by using good proportion of ingredients in concrete mix, by
covering the top surface which reduces evaporation and using appropriate
techniques for placing and finishing.
• 4. Delamination
• Delamination is also similar to blistering. In this case also, top surface of concrete
gets separated from underlying concrete.
• Hardening of top layer of concrete before the hardening of underlying concrete
will lead to delamination.
•  It is because the water and air bleeding from underlying concrete are struck
between these two surfaces, hence space will be formed. Like blistering,
delamination can also be prevented by using proper finishing techniques. It is
better to start the finishing after bleeding process has run its course.
• 5. Dusting
• Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose powdered concrete on the
hardened concrete by disintegration. This happens due to the presence of excess amount of
water in concrete. It causes bleeding of water from concrete, with this fine particles like
cement or sand will rise to the top and consequent wear causes dust at the top surface.
• To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard concrete surface with good
wear resistance. Use water reducing admixtures to obtain adequate slump. It is also
recommended to use better finishing techniques and finishing should be started after
removing the bleed water from concrete surface.
• 6. Curling
• When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by upward or downward movement of
edges or corners, it is called curling. It occurs mainly due to the differences in moisture
content or temperature between slab surface (top) and slab base (bottom).
• Curling of concrete slab may be upward curling or downward curling. When the top surface is
dried and cooled before bottom surface, it begins to shrink and upward curling takes place.
• When bottom surface is dried and cooled due to high temperature and high moisture content,
it will shrink before top surface and downward curling occurs. To prevent curling, use low
shrink concrete mix, provide control joints, provide heavy reinforcement at edges or provide
edges with great thickness.
• 7. Efflorescence
• Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts on the concrete surface.
Formed salts generally white in color. It is due to the presence of soluble salts in
the water which is used in making concrete mix.
• When concrete is hardening, these soluble salts gets lifted to the top surface by
hydro static pressure and after complete drying salt deposits are formed on the
surface. It can be prevented by using clean and pure water for mixing, using
chemically ineffective aggregates etc. And make sure that cement should not
contain alkalis more than 1% of its weight.
• 8. Scaling and Spalling
• Scaling and spalling, in both the cases concrete surface gets deteriorated and flaking of
concrete occurs. The main cause for this type of cases is penetration of water through concrete
surface. This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or scaling may occurs.
• Some other causes are use of non-air entrained concrete mix, inadequate curing and use of lo
strength concrete etc. This type of defects can be prevented by, using well designed concrete
mixes, by adding air entrainment admixtures, proper finishing and curing, providing good
slope to drain water coming on to the surface etc.
REPAIR IN CONCRETE
• REPAIR
• Action taken to reinstate to an acceptable level the current
functionality of a structure or its components which are defective or
deteriorated, degraded or damaged in some way is called repair
The actions will include the following:

• (i) Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster.

• (ii) Repairing doors, windows, replacement of glass panes.
• (iii) Checking and repairing electric wiring.
• (iv) Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and plumbing services.
• (v) Re-building non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, boundary walls, etc.
• (vi) Re-plastering of walls as required.
• (vii) Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles.
• (viii) Relaying cracked flooring at ground level.
• (ix) Redecoration, whitewashing, painting, etc.
REPAIR
• Action taken to reinstate to an acceptable level the current functionality of
a structure or its components which are defective or deteriorated, degraded
or damaged in some way is called repair
REHABILITATION
• It is the process of bringing the structure to its original level of function
including durability and strength.
• Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding
them in richer mortar. Use of nonshrinking mortar will be preferable.
RETROFITTING
• Action to modify the functionality of a structure and to improve load
carrying capacity is called retrofitting.
REPAIRING TECHNIQUES
• Before any type of concrete repair is attempted, it is essential that all
factors governing the deterioration or failure of the concrete structure
are identified. This is required so that the appropriate remedial
measures can be undertaken in the repair design to help correct the
problem and prevent it from occuring in the future. The following
techniques require expert and experienced assistance for the best
results. The method of repair will depend on the size of the job and the
type of repair required.
The Dry-Pack Method:
• The dry-pack method can be used on small holes in new concrete which have a
depth equal to or greater than the surface diameter. Preparation of a dry-pack mix
typically consists of about 1-part portland cement and 2-1/2-parts sand to be
mixed with water. You then add enough water to produce a mortar that will stick
together. Once the desired consistency is reached, the mortar is ready to be packed
into the hole using thin layers.
 Concrete Replacement:
•  Concrete replacement is required when one-half to one square foot areas or
larger extend entirely through the concrete sections or where the depth of
damaged concrete exceeds 6 inches. When this occurs, normal concrete
placement methods should be used. Repair will be more effective if tied in
with existing reinforcing steel (rebar). This type of repair will require the
assistance of a professional engineer experienced in concrete construction.
 Replacement of Unformed Concrete: 

• The replacement of damaged or deteriorated areas in horizontal slabs involves no

special procedures other than those used in good construction practices for placement
of new slabs. Repair work can be bonded to old concrete by use of a bond coat made
of equal amounts of sand and cement. It should have the consistency of whipped
cream and should be applied immediately ahead of concrete placement so that it will
not set or dry out. Latex emulsions with portland cement and epoxy resins are also
used as bonding coats.
 Preplaced Aggregate Concrete:
• This special commercial technique has been used for massive repairs,
particularly for underwater repairs of piers and abutments. The process
consists of the following procedures:
1.Removing the deteriorated concrete,
2.Forming the sections to be repaired,
3.Prepacking the repair area with coarse aggregate, and
4.Pressure grouting the voids between the aggregate particles with a cement
or sand-cement mortar.
Synthetic Patches
• One of the most recent developments in concrete repair has been the use of synthetic materials for bonding and
patching. Epoxy-resin compounds are used extensively because of their high bonding strength. In applying
epoxy-resin patching R 07/08/99 mortars, a bonding coat of the epoxy resin is thoroughly brushed onto the base
of the old concrete. The mortar is then immediately applied and troweled to the elevation of the surrounding
material.
• Before attempting to repair a deteriorated concrete surface, all unsound concrete should be removed by sawing
or chipping and the patch area thoroughly cleaned. A sawed edge is superior to a chipped ege, and sawing is
generally less costly than mechanical chipping. Before concrete is ordered for placing, adequate inspection
should be performed to ensure that
1.Foundations are properly prepared and ready to receive the concrete,
2.Construction joints are clean and free from defective concrete,
3.Forms are grout-tight, amply strong, and set to their true alignment and grade,
4.All reinforcement steel and embedded parts are clean, in their correct position, and securely held in
place, and
5.Adequate concrete delivery equipment and facilities are on the job, ready to go, and capable of
completing the placement without additional unplanned constriction.
• 
Sagging balconies
• It is a common phenomenon, specially in repetitive mass construction, the
balconies projected outside are found sagging. The balconies are
constructed as cantilever over­hung from the masonry walls 1.2 to 2.0 m.
The cantilever slab might have been designed properly; but in most cases
during construction top tensile steel at the support are dis­placed reducing
the lever arm and, thereby, reducing the moment of resistance.
• Cracks occur on the top at the support and the slab gradually sags and
ultimately it simply hangs. In such cases, the balcony shall have to be
demolished with a part of the slab beyond the masonry support and the
whole redone after redesigning and constructing carefully.
• Alternatively, the balcony may be repaired in a mixed way by inserting brackets,
either of m.s. sections or of R.C.C. If the length of the balcony is more and cannot
be supported on two brackets, more brackets may be introduced and, if required,
m.s. or R.C.C. small size beams may be introduced below the balcony slab and
over the brackets.
• The work is to be started from the ground floor. The level of the balcony slab shall
have to be corrected by using jack at the tip. When the balcony slab is in
horizontal position, the brackets with the beams as necessary shall have to be
placed in position. After positioning the members and fixing them with the
existing masonry wall, the brackets with the fixings shall have to be cured as
usual.
• After repairing of the balcony as detailed, the same shall be supported by props
from the ground floor so that it can take the load that would be coming during
repairing of the balcony above.
• In the same procedure, the balcony of next floor above shall be done and so on. 
RCC BEAM DETAILS