“CHAPTER 2”

THE OUTCOMES OF STUDENT LEARNING

 ⭕ Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. delineate the components of an instructional outcome;
2. classify learning outcomes according to the different
levels of cognitive, effective, and psychomotor domains;

3. write specific cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor outcomes;
4. rationalize if the assessment method
harmonize with the set learning
outcome; and
5. discuss assessment in the context of
outcomes-based education.
CHAPTER 2: THE OUTCOMES OF STUDENT LEARNING
Learning outcomes lay down the knowledge, skills, and values
the learners must learn, acquire and develop by the end of a
precise course or program. They are the cornerstones of
course design and assessment that convey the intent of the
instrutional process. At the crux of the process are the
learners who can play what they
have learned. The teacher on the other
hand, has the responsibility to motivate
participation from students to engage in
different learning activities and subsequently
asses program outcomes for continuous
improvement in instruction.
At the outset, the teacher forms a well-written statement of
the competencies and characteristics the learners must
possess at the end of the process. The precise statement of
instructional outcomes provides a basis for identifying and
designing
learning activities and assessing students’ performance at
the end of the program or
course.
 Assessment in Outcomes-Based Education
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) defines OBE as
an approach that focuses and organizes the educational system
around. what is essential for all
learners to know, value, and do to achieve a desired level of
competence at the time
of graduation (CHED Implementation Handbook, 2013).
It mens starting with a clear
picture of what is important for students to
be able to do, then organizing the
curriculum, instruction, and assessment to
make sure that learning will ultimately
take place
(Center for Education and innovation, 2016). According to
Spady (1994), OBE is grounded on the following principles:

1. Clarity of focus. The focal point of the

process is what the students know,
understand, and able to do. In other words,
teachers should concentrate
on helping students to develop the
knowledge, skills, and personalities that
will enable them to achieve the intended
outcomes that have been clearly
articulated.
2. Designing down. The curriculum design must start with a
clear definition of the intended outcomes that students are
to achieve by the end of the program. Once this has been
done, all instructional decisions are directed towards the
achievement of the desired end result.
3. High expectations. High and challenging
standards of performance are established
to encourage students to engage deeply in
what they are
learning. Helping students to achieve high
standards is linked very closely
with the idea that successful learning
precedes more successful learning.
4. Expanded opportunities. Developing a curriculum
allows every learner to progress in his/her own pace with
recognition of individual needs and
differences. Accordingly, all learners are provided with
expanded opportunities to achieve high standards of
learning.
Moving further, OBE stresses the shift from
traditional input-based education
to outcomes-based education (OBE) and
eventually calls for a changing educational
platform and perspective in the
assessment.
It is an assessment-driven system that
operates through the setting up of pre-determined
learning outcomes specifying the
competencies or capabilities the learners need to
acquire and develop by the time
they graduate and before they enter the
workplace.According to the international Network for
Outcomes-Based Education (2017),
Curriculum, instructional
strategies, assessments, and performance
standards are developed and
implemented to facilitate key outcomes.
About the preceding discourse, a teacher should take a
more eclectic or extensive view of the curriculum content
and design, program and course outcomes, instructions
and delivery modes, resources, and assessment
methodologies. It means that the inputs, methods, and
execution are all constructively aligned to procedure the
desired learning competencies for the graduates of a
course
or program as agued or measured by
appropriate assessments. It all points to
how the level of attainment of the set
outcomes can be progressively
heightened or reinforced.
 It provides for continual teaching and learning
improvement. The focus is on providing
a meaningful and relevant student learning experience.
By and large, the entire
process is correlated to an institutional mission.
Purposes of Learning Outcomes:
Specification of learning outcomes is central
to building a strong foundation for the
successful completion of the educational
process. This step in the planning stage
guides the selection of appropriate content,
determination of learning activities,
indentication of appropriate assessment
methods, assessment of progress, and
setting of priorities.
Formulating Learning Outcomes:

Formulating learning outcomes is challenging as so many

factors need to be taken into account.
To begin to develop learning outcomes,
teachers need to think of REALM that
stands for Relevant, Explicit, Achievable,
Learner-centered, and Measurable
learning outcomes.
Relevant. Check if the stated outcomes are aligned with
the institutional and program outcomes. Relative to this,
Huba and Freed (2000) present the optimal method in
formulating learning outcomes.
Relative to this, Huba and Freed (2000) present the optimal
method in formulating learning outcomes. It directs teacher-
assessors to design backward and to deliver forward.

Start with the Institution's mission and

College-level learning outcomes and work
backward to design program and course
outcomes. Program and course outcomes
should drive the design of activities and
assessments within the classroom. (see
Figure 4)
Figure 4. Formulating learning outcomes
(Huba & Freed, 2000)
Explicit. Describe the outcomes, not the process or activities.
Indicate the timeline for the completion of the desired
learning. Avoid vague or nonobservable verbs such as know,
reflect or understand.
Avoid vague or nonobservable verbs such as know,
reflect or understand. Use active language,
behavioral verbs, in particular, that spell out clear
expectations such as tell, identify, compare, discuss,
illustrate, and create.
Achievable. Set outcomes that are within
the bounds of time and resources
available. Set a target date for the
accomplishment of the desired outcomes.
Check on the availability and sufficiency of learning
resources like the instructional aid or needed for the
learning and assessment activities consider also the learners
those objectives/outcomes are aimed at – their individual
conditions.
Learner-centered. Focus on what the learners will know
and be able to do at the end of the course or program.
Rather than explaining what the instructor
will do in the course, describe the
knowledge or skills that the learners will
develop and employ, and help them
understand why those knowledge and skills
are useful and valuable to their personal,
professional, and academic future
Measurable. Provide clear and assessable statements that
define the knowledge and skills that students will
demonstrate. Indicate the criterion level of performance.
Specify how a particular behavior is to be exhibited and be
evaluated.
Aspects that Learning Outcomes Should
Specify

according to Mager (cited in Dalton, 2020),

learning objectives/outcomes should
include the following three components:
1. Performance informs what learners will be able to do
specifically at the end of instruction. It is expressed using
action verbs.
2. Condition specifies the situations in which the
performance will have to occur.
3. Criterion level is a performance
standard specified by the instructor or
program. Examples of a criterion
include: at 90% accuracy, eight out of
ten questions, and without an error.
This also serves as a basis for
instructional remediation or
intervention.
Ex. At the end of 30 minutes, the pupils can solve 3 out
of 5 word problems without the use of a calculator.

➢ Performance – solve math problems

➢ Conditions – at the end of 30 minutes,
without the use of a calculator
➢ Criterion – 3 out of 5 word
problems The Taxonomy of Learning
In 1956, Benjamen Samuel Bloom (1913-
1999), a Jewish-American
educational psychologist from the University
of Chicago proposed a very useful protype
that helps in the formulation of learning
objectives/outcomes known as “Bloom’s
Taxonomy.
 It presents a set of three hierarchical models that categorize
learning objectives/outcomes into cognitive, affective, and
sensory/psychomotor domains. The pyramid graphic
demonstrates the arrangement of skills according to level of
complexity and specificity.
This means that each level is built on a
foundation of the previous levels. Learning
at the higher levels is dependent on having
attained the prerequisite knowledge and
skills at lower levels. The development of
higher-order thinking skills is encouraged
by building up from
lower- cognitive skills.
 Domain 1: COGNITIVE (Knowledge)
The cognitive domain focuses on helping learners acquire
knowledge and develop their mental skills. The
objective/outcome in this domain is limited only to the
cognition or mental activity of the learners. The six
categories under this domain are knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation as presented in Figure 5.
 Figure 5. Levels of Cognitive Domain Learning
In 2001, Anderson and Krathwohl published a revised
Bloom’s taxonomy of the cognitive domain to fit the
more outcome-focused modern education objectives
(Gabuyo, 2012) to fit the educational trend in the 21st
century. It also includes six levels of learning but their
names were changed from
nouns to active verbs. The last two highest
levels (synthesis and evaluation) were
interchanged (evaluating and creating). (See
figure 6)
2001) Figure 6. Changes to Bloom’s Taxonomy
Using the new version of Cognitive Taxonomy, the following
are the levels of cognitive domain learning (Gabuyo, 2012):
Remembering (lowest level). This is the corresponding part of
knowledge in Bloom’s taxonomy. This includes retrieving,
recognizing, or recalling information from
memory.

Understanding. This is the ability of the

learners to construct and understand
meaning from oral and written messages
or graphic information.
Applying. This means the realistic execution or
implementation of concepts learned in new or novel
situations.
Analyzing. This is realized by breaking concepts into parts,
determining the interconnections or interrelations between
parts resulting in a well-understood struture of
organization.
Evaluating. This level requires
students to make judgments
check, critique, or propose
recommendations to
demonstrate the processes of
evaluation
Creating (highest level). This is the counterpart of synthesis
in Bloom’s taxonomy. Creating requires putting or
reorganizing elements together to form a new
functional whole or structure. This is considered as the most
difficult mental function
in the revised taxonomy
Measurable verbs in the formulation of
learning outcomes indicate explicitly what
the students must do to demonstrate what
is happening in the brain (cognitive activity).
Below is the list of measurable verbs that
can help us describe and classify observable
knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and
abilities.
Table 2.
Measurable
Verbs in the
Cognitive
Learning
Outcomes
Domain 2: AFFECTIVE (Attitude)

The affective domain takes account of

instructional objectives that reflect
feelings, appreciation, enthusiasm,
motivation, attitudes, and values.
Learning intent in this domain of learning
is arranged according to the degree of
internalization in which the emotion
guides or controls a person’s behavior.
Krathwohl and his
colleagues (1964) identified five levels of
learning in the affective domain
Receiving. This level demonstrates the ability to
become aware or sensitive, and willing to listen or pay
attention to certain ideas or phenomena.
Valuing. This is the ability to see the worth or give worth to
a material, phenomenon, or any piece of ideas. Behaviors
at this level reflect a belief,
appreciation, or attitude(Garcia, 2004)
Organizing. This level involves comparing,
assessing, synthesizing (putting
together) different values, information, and
ideas and relating them to already held
beniefs to bring into a harmonious and
internally consistent philosophy.
Characterizing. This level shows the ability of
the learner to act or practice consistently the
values he or she has learned and internalized.

The behavioral verbs contained in

Figure 7 can help in the formulation
of
affective learning objectives.
Table 3.
Measurable
Verbs in the
Affective
Learning
Outcomes
Domain 3: PSYCHOMOTOR (Skills)

The psychomotor domain borders on helping the learners

develop good
control over their motor, sensory, and perceptual-motor
commands that facilitate the
learning of skills. Its objectives are those specific to discreet
physical functions automatic responses, and
reflex movements where the gross and
fine muscles are used for expressing or
interpreting information or concepts.
Over the years, the psychomotor domain has been
revised. R.H. Dave (1970)
presented five categories, A.J. Harrow (1972) six
categories, and E.J. Simpson
(1972) seven categories (Navarro & Santos, 2012). (see
Figure 8)
 Figure 7. Levels of Psychomotor Domain Learning

Dave's taxonomy lends itself perfectly to the articulation of

progressive skills development. It represents the five levels
of motor skill development from the initial exposure to final
mastery.
➢ Imitation. The ability to observe a
pattern of behavior from someone
else and carry it out under supervision. The
timing, coordination, and
performance of the act are not yet refined.
➢ Manipulation. The ability to perform a certain skill
independently. Complete accuracy has not been
achieved yet. Careful following of
instructions and practicing is still required.
➢ Precision. The ability to render a refined and accurate
performance of skill with some level of expertise,
without help, and with fewer errors
➢ Articulation. The ability to adapt and
integrate a series or multiple
actions with harmony and internal
consistency. The learner starts to
modify actions or movements to meet
particular requirements or suit the given
situations
➢ Naturalization. This level shows the natural,
spontaneous, or automaatic performance of the skills
without needing to think much about it.
Harrow’s taxonomy is more focused on
the development of physical fitness,
dexterity, agility, and body control to
achieve a high level of expertise. It is
organized
according to the degree of coordination
from simple reflexes and to complex
neuromuscular coordination (Seels &
Glasgow, 1990)
➢ Reflex Movements. These are automatic or
spontaneous actions that are elicited and brought forth
without learning in response to some
stimuli. Examples: flexion, extension, stretch, postural
adjustments
➢ Fundamental Movements. These are
basic movement patterns
combined with reflex movements that
can build to complex skilled
movements such as walking, running,
grasping, pushing, and pulling.
➢ Perceptual Abilities. These include the ability to take,
interpret, respond, and react to stimuli such as visual,
auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile to make adjustments to the
environment. This suggests cognitive as well as
psychomotor behavior. Examples include coordinated
movements such as jumping rope, punting, or catching.
➢ Physical Abilities. These require
endurance, strength, vigor, and agility which
are needed to develop a sound and
efficiently functioning body. Any activities
that require a strenuous effort for long
periods, muscular exertion, a quick, wide
range of motion at the hip joints, and quick,
precise movements fall under this category.
➢ Skilled Movements. These are advanced learned
movements that result t from the acquisition of a degree of
efficiency when performing complex tasks such as sports,
recreation, and dance
➢ Non-discursive Communication. This is
communication through expressive bodily
movements ranging from facial expressions
..
through posture, gestures, and
sophisticated and creative movements.
Simpson built her taxonomy on the work of Bloom and other
experts. It includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. The
development of skills requires practice that ranges from
manual tasks to more complex tasks. The performance of
these skills is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

➢ Perception. The ability to use sensory

cues to guide motor activity.
This ranges from sensory stimulation,
through cue selection, to
translation (cited in Gabuyo, 2012).
➢ Set. The readiness to act. It includes conditioning the
mind, body, and emotion to perform an act.
➢ Guided Response. This includes imitating and doing
trial-and-error to learn a complex skill that comprises
the early stage of skill development. The precision of
skill is achieved by practicing
➢ Mechanism. This is the intermediate
stage in learning a complex skill. Learned
responses have become habitual with a
medium level of assurance and proficiency.
➢ Adaptation. The skills are well developed and the
learner starts to modify movement patterns to
become suited to a different requirement

➢ Origination. The learning outcomes

in this level emphasize creativity and
igenuity based on highly developed
skills. This in.dicates the ability to new
create or originate movement patterns
to fit a particular situation or specific
problem.
The preceding
taxonomic
systems have
been re-
organized and
simplified into
four.

Figure 8. Simplified Levels of Psychomotor

Domain Learning (Source: Simpson, 1972)
The commonly used behavioral verbs in formulating the
psychomotor learning outcomes mes are listed in Table 4.
Table 4. Measurable Verbs in the Psychomotor Learning
Outcomes
Matching Learning Outcomes with Assessment Methods
Effective assessment should be linked to the desired
learning outcomes. Formulating good learning outcomes
and connecting them to specific assessment questions
allow the teachers to track students’ mastery and
performance. The teacher designs the assessment task or
choose the
.
assessment method with
reference to the stated learning outcomes
for the lesson or course. The assessment
has to complement and fit into the big
picture” of the course and function to
represent the extent of achievement of the
learning outcomes.
Ellis (2017) presents a course design model that reflects the
relationship between goals, assessment, and teaching
methods in relation to the course content.
This model is a useful tool for ensuring that your
assessments are aligned with your main learning outcomes
and help students demonstrate their achievement of the
outcomes.
Figure 9. Aligning Learning Outcomes, Assessments, and
Teaching Methods the constructive alignment of these three
essential aspects in the educative
process points you the right direction in hitting your target.
If assessments are misaligned with learning outcomes or
instructional strategies, it makes the entire course
fragmented and the teaching ineffective.
Teachers and learners can throw
away time and the valued resources on
activities that do not lead to the intended
outcomes. The teacher can also
misconstrue, overestimate, or
underestimate the effectiveness of the
instruction that has taken place.
Figure 10 illustrates the proper alignment of learning outcom
learning activies, and assessment methods.