3 Compaction

3.
0 Compaction
Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Compaction of Soil
• Compaction is a simple ground improvement technique,

where the soil is densified through external compactive
effort.
• It refers to the process of obtaining higher density of soil
by reduction of its pore space through forced the
expulsion of air.
• The soil particles of the are rearranged into a dense state
by applying mechanical energy.

Compaction of soil
•Unit weight of the soil is increased .
•Air voids are reduced to a minimum.
• Achieved by static or dynamic load applied on the soil

depending on soil type.
•Measured in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil, γd
•Soil is often used as a construction material.

Purposes of Compaction
• Many earth filled structures are constructed with soil;

e.g. highway embankments, airport runways,
railway embankments, earth dams,, landfills etc.
• When soil is used as a construction and foundation

material, the in-place soil should possess the required
engineering properties for the particular project.
• Compaction will help to produce soil with the appropriate
physical properties.
• Very helpful in making the soil denser so as to support
loads.

Engineering Properties
• Engineering properties enhanced by compaction;
• Reduction in the void ratio.
• This is usually required for fill materials, and is sometimes

used for natural soils
• Compaction increases the soil strength – shear strength
• Compaction reduces settlements under working loads –
compressibility
• Compaction makes water flow through soil more difficult -
decreases permeability of the soil – required for earth dams
and embankments
• Compaction can prevent liquefaction during earthquakes – by
forcing soil fabric into a denser configuration by the
mechanical effort used in compaction
Compaction Process
• Loose soils on construction sites are densified using equipment that
apply a compressive mechanical energy on the soil to reduce void
ratio.
• Compaction = Densification = Reduction in Volume of Voids
• Soils may be ferried to the site, placed and compacted.
• The process is instantaneous and is carried out on partially saturated

soils. Densification can not be achieved on soils that are fully
saturated.
• Compaction is a function of the water content, the soil type and the
compactive effort /energy applied.

Factors affecting Compaction
• Water content of soil
- water is required for compaction of soil. When the soil is dry and
stiff, it is difficult to compact.
- water aids the particles to slide over each other making the soil
more workable.
- water helps to increase soil densification during compaction only
up to a certain optimum amount of water content.
• The type of soil being compacted eg gradation.
- granular soils (sands), fine grained soils (clays)
- compaction of granular soils by vibration.
- compaction of fine grained soils by static pressure.
• The amount of compactive energy used;
- higher compaction is achieved with high compactive energy
Laboratory Compaction
• The fundamentals and principles of compaction in soils were

defined by Ralph R. Proctor in the early 1930’s while
constructing dams.
• Proctor showed that there exists a relationship between the water

content of soil and the degree of density to which the soil can be
compacted.
• He developed a test in 1933 to help specify levels of compaction

of a soil for a project.
• In his honor, the widely used standard laboratory compaction

test he developed is commonly referred to as the Proctor test.
• Proctor determined that for a specific amount of compaction energy

applied on a soil, there is one moisture content referred to as the
Optimum Moisture Content at which a particular soil attains
maximum density.
• The purpose of the laboratory compaction test is to determine the
proper amount of mixing water to use when compacting the soil in
the field and the resulting degree of denseness which can be expected
from compaction at this optimum water content.
• The laboratory proctor test is an impact compaction. A hammer is
dropped several times on a soil sample in a mould. The mass of the
hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil,
and the volume of the mould are specified.

Proctor Compaction Test Equipment


Laboratory Equipment for Proctor Test
• Proctor mould with a detachable collar assembly and base plate.

• Manual rammer weighing 2.5 kg and equipped to provide a height of drop
to a free fall of 300 mm (Standard Proctor).
• Sample Extruder.
• A sensitive balance.
• Straight edge.
• Squeeze bottle
• Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatula etc.
• Moisture cans.
• Drying Oven Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE
Laboratory Equipment

Standard Proctor Compaction Test
• Uses 2.5 kg hammer

• Dropped 300 mm
• Mould filled in 3 equal lifts
• 27 blows of hammer per lift

Proctor Compaction Test - Procedure
• Prepare about 5
specimens of soil at
increasing water
contents about 2 %
apart.
The range of moisture
contents used are based
on feel and experience

• Compact each sample

into the mould with
standard procedures by
applying 27 blows of
the 2.5kg hammer on
each of the 3 layers.
• Distribute the blows
uniformly over the soil
surface and ensure that
the rammer always falls
freely and is not
obstructed by soil in the
guide tube.
• Strike off excess soil

so that the mould
contains a known
volume of soil based
on the measured
mould dimensions.

Proctor Test Procedure - Summary
• Several samples of the same soil at different water contents are
compacted in a Proctor mould.
• Compaction is carried out in a specific pattern on each layer placed

in the mould.
The first four blows The successive blows
• For each sample, measure the weight of the mould and the water
content of the soil in the mould .
• The water content of the soil is determined by cutting out a sample
of the compacted soil and placing it in a pre-weighed moisture
content tin for oven drying.
Proctor Test Results
• Determine the total density and the water content of each

compacted sample. The volume and weight of the empty mould are
pre-measured before the test.
Mt 
  , d  Derive ρd from the known ρ and w
Vt 1W %
• Determine moist density, γ
• Calculate dry density, γd

d 
1W %
• Plot dry density and water content for each point

• The object of compaction is to reduce the void ratio, or to
increase the dry unit weight
Gs  w
 dry 
1 e
• In a compaction test bulk unit weight and moisture content are
measured. The dry unit weight may be determined as follows
W W of Solid  W of Water Ws  Ww
 bulk   
V Total Volume V
 W 
 1  w W s
 Ws 
 bulk   1  m  dry
V
• m: moisture content
• From the graph the optimum moisture content, mopt that gives the maximum
dry unit weight. (γdry )max is determined.
The peak point of the compaction curve

• The peak point of the compaction curve is the point with the
maximum dry density ρd max.
• Corresponding to the maximum dry density ρd max is a water content

known as the optimum water content Wopt (also referred to as the
optimum moisture content, OMC).
Note that the maximum dry density is only a maximum for a

specific compactive effort and method of compaction. This does not
necessarily reflect the maximum dry density that can be obtained in
the field.
• The equations for the
curves with different
degree of saturation
is :
w S w S
d  
w S
W S W
s Gs
• You can derive the
equation by yourself
• Hint: s
d 
1 e
Se  wG s

• To understand the shape of the curve it is helpful to develop
relations between (γdry ) and the percentage of air voids, A.
Va
A%   100
V
A V  Vs
1  w
100 V
 A 
W S  W w  1  
 bulk Ws  Ww  100 
 dry   
1  m V 1  m  V s  V w 1  m 
Ws Ww mW s
Vs  Vw  
Gs  w w w
 A  Gs  w 
 dry  1   
 100   G s m  1 


Typical Compaction Curves

Zero air voids curve
•The curve represents the fully saturated condition (S
= 100 %). (It cannot be achieved by compaction)
Line of optimums
• A line drawn through the peak points of several

compaction curves at different compactive efforts for
the same soil will be almost parallel to a 100 % S
curve, it is called the line of optimums

Results - Explanation
• Below Wopt (dry side of
optimum):
As the water content increases, the
particles develop larger and larger
water films around them, which
tend to “lubricate” the particles and
make them easier to be moved
about and reoriented into a denser
configuration.

Results - Explanation
• At W opt :
The density is at the
maximum, and it does not
increase any further.
Above W opt :
(wet side of optimum):
Water starts to replace soil
particles in the mould, and
hence the dry density starts to
decrease.

Results - Notes
• Each data point on the curve represents a single

compaction test, and usually four or five individual
compaction tests are required to completely determine
the compaction curve.
• At least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of

optimum, and water contents varying by about 2%.

Results - Notes
• Optimum water content is typically slightly less than
the plastic limit (ASTM suggestion).
• Typical values of maximum dry density are around

1.6 to 2.0 Mg/ m3 with the maximum range from
about 1.3 to 2.4 Mg/ m3.
• Typical optimum water contents are between 10%
and 20%, with an outside maximum range of about
5% to 40%.

Effect of water content
• Adding water at low moisture contents makes it easier for particles to

move during compaction, and attain a lower void ratio. As a result
increasing moisture content is associated with increasing dry unit
weight.
• As moisture content increases, the air content decreases and the soil
approaches the zero-air-voids line.
•
• The soil reaches a maximum dry unit weight at the optimum moisture
content
• Because of the shape of the no-air-voids line further increases in

moisture content result in a reduction in dry unit weight

Effect of varying compactive effort
• Increasing energy results in an increased maximum dry unit

weight at a lower optimum moisture content.
• There is no unique curve. The compaction curve depends on the
energy applied.
• Use of more energy beyond mopt has little effect.

Line of Optimum

Typical Values
• G s is constant, therefore increasing maximum dry unit weight is

associated with decreasing optimum moisture contents
• Do not use typical values for design as soil is highly variable

Field specifications
• During construction of soil structures (dams, roads) there is
usually a requirement to achieve a specified dry unit weight/dry
density

Relative Density
For cohesionless e.g. sand and gravel soils (without fines)
alternative specifications for compaction are used. Compactions
of these soils are based on achieving a certain relative density.
e max  e
Id 
e max  e min
e = current void ratio
emax = maximum void ratio in a standard test
e min = minimum void ratio in a standard test
Id = 1 when e = e min and soil is at its densest state

Id= 0 when e = e max and soil is at its loosest state

Relative Density
• Relative density, Id can be expressed in terms of dry density, γ dry
e 
Gs  w
1 Id

 dryma x  dry   drymin 
 dry 
 dry  drymax   drymin 
• The terms loose, medium and dense are used, where typically
loose 0 < Id < 0.333

medium 0.333 < Id < 0.667
dense 0.667 < Id < 1

Field Applications
• Using soil as a construction material is desirable due to its availability, its
durability and comparatively low cost.
• When soil is used for construction, it is typically placed in layers in order

to develop a required shape and elevation. Each layer is compacted before
placing a subsequent layer.
• Properly placed and compacted soils possess strength and support

capabilities that are as good as or better than many natural soil formations.
• Using compacted earth fills, it is possible to support buildings, highways

and parking areas on the compacted soil mass. This is referred to as a
Compacted Earth Fill or a Structural Fill.

Field Compaction
Compaction in the field is achieved by traversing a relatively thin layer
of soil with mechanical equipment for a sufficient number of passes
until the required density is achieved.
The properties of a good compacted soil are;
• adequate strength
• incompressibility to minimize settlements
• stability against volume change as the conditions vary
e.g. water content
• appropriate permeability for the project purpose.

Compaction equipment
• Compaction is achieved by specialist plant designed to apply energy
to the soil mass by means of pressure through kneading, remoulding
or vibration.

SELF STUDY ACTIVITIES
 Craig, R.F. (2004), Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition, E &

FN Spon:

Criteria of Assessment
At the end of the study themes 1, 2 & 3, you should be able to:
• Define what constitutes an engineering soil
• Describe the fundamental properties of soil particles that are of
importance in engineering (shape, size and texture)
• Classify soils according to the Unified Soil Classification
system.
• Relate the meaning and importance of the plasticity or
Atterberg limits in soils and have a general feel for typical
values of these indexes in soils.

Criteria of Assessment
• Soil rapid assessment procedures (quick field tests)

• Define the term specific gravity and know the typical range of
values in soils
• Calculate and use all the phase relationship formulae in
dry and fully saturated soils.
• Calculate the relative density in sandy soils and
understand the relevance of this index.
• Determination of soil optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density

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3.

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Compaction is a simple ground improvement technique,

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

•Unit weight of the soil is increased .

•Air voids are reduced to a minimum.

• Achieved by static or dynamic load applied on the soil

•Measured in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil, γd

•Soil is often used as a construction material.

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Many earth filled structures are constructed with soil;

• When soil is used as a construction and foundation

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• This is usually required for fill materials, and is sometimes

• The process is instantaneous and is carried out on partially saturated

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• The fundamentals and principles of compaction in soils were

• Proctor showed that there exists a relationship between the water

• He developed a test in 1933 to help specify levels of compaction

• In his honor, the widely used standard laboratory compaction

• Proctor determined that for a specific amount of compaction energy

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Proctor mould with a detachable collar assembly and base plate.

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Uses 2.5 kg hammer

• 27 blows of hammer per lift

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Compact each sample

• Strike off excess soil

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Compaction is carried out in a specific pattern on each layer placed

The first four blows The successive blows

• Determine the total density and the water content of each

• Plot dry density and water content for each point

The peak point of the compaction curve

• Corresponding to the maximum dry density ρd max is a water content

Note that the maximum dry density is only a maximum for a

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• A line drawn through the peak points of several

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Each data point on the curve represents a single

• At least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Typical values of maximum dry density are around

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Adding water at low moisture contents makes it easier for particles to

• Because of the shape of the no-air-voids line further increases in

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• Increasing energy results in an increased maximum dry unit

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

• G s is constant, therefore increasing maximum dry unit weight is

• Do not use typical values for design as soil is highly variable

Prepared by Eng. Gerard BANZIBAGANYE

Id = 1 when e = e min and soil is at its densest state