MALIGAYANG ARAW!

HISTORY OF MATH
Proof, Certainty,
and Techonoly

PRESENTED BY:
Treshalyn D. Hernandez
THE HISTORY AND CONCEPT OF MATHEMATICAL PROOF

A mathematician is
the master of critical
thinking, of analysis, and
of deductive reasoning.
 The unique features of mathematics apart from any other
sciences, from philosophy, and any other intellectual discourse, is
the use of rigorous “proof”.

 It is the proof concept that makes the subject cohere, that gives its
timelessness, that enables it to travel well.

 Proof is our device for establishing the absolute and irrevocate

truth of statements in our subject.
 Mathematical proof is the reason why we can defend on
mathematics that was done by Euclid 2300 years ago as the readily
as we believe in the mathematics that is done by today.

SURVEYING LAND
 Egyptians as well as Greeks, were concerned about surveying
land. Thus it was natural to consider questions of geometry
and trigonometry.
 Certainly triangles and rectangles came up in a natural way in
this context, so early geometry concentrated to this construct.
Circles too, were natural water tanks and other practical
projects.

 Therefore, ancient geometry (Euclid’s axioms for geometry)

discussed circles.

 The is no standard for the concept of truth. The logical logical

structure, the “rules of the game” had not yet been created.
 What if proof?

- There are proofs that can introduce new techniques to attack other problems
in mathematics or offer
understanding for something different from the original context.
(Mathematician in early studies)

- Weber (2002) states that besides proofs that convince or/and explain there
are proofs that justify the use of definitions or an axiomatic structure and
proofs that illustrate proving techniques useful in other proving situations.
- Lucast considers proof and methods for problem solving as in principal the
same and states that proving is involved in the cognitive processes needed for
problem solving.

- However, the deductive style in mathematics has survived and been

successful. One important reason for this is indeed that the proofs contain
information of how to get other results and also often contain methods of
calculation used for example in applications.
- The proofs should also contribute to demonstrate and develop
students’ skills of logical reasoning. This is useful in many
situations. One of the function of mathematics in the engineering
program is this.
- Mathematics is about defining concepts and to study how these
concepts are connected. To understand the concepts you have to
understand how they are connected to each other. From the proof
one should learn something about the concepts involved in it.
- Also the technical proofs are useful to do: the technique leads to
better understanding of problem solving.
- There is no difference in principle between proving and
calculation. When a student carries out a computation in several
steps, then these steps is a proof of the statement that the final result
is the answer to the question. It is important that students at all
levels get the insight that it is always reasoning which is the core of
mathematics.
- Some examples of specific proofs that we found valuable to
present in order to later explore their potentials for further studies.
(Weber 2002)
1. The relation in the Pascal’s triangle can be prove by
induction.
2. There are an infinite number of primes enlightens proof by contradiction
3. The square root of 2 is irrational. The students can then surely find other
results
4. where the number 2 is replaced by another integer.
5. n(n+1) is divisible by 2 , if n is a positive integer. The same proof
techniques can be applied in other proving tasks concerning divisibility.
5. Is it true that the proposition P(x) holds for all real numbers x?” where P(x)
is for instance an inequality. This trains the ability to see what is required of a
proof, and that a refutation just needs a counter example which is very
important in many proving tasks.
 The Greeks

- Grabiner (1974) stated that the Greeks would transform mathematics from
an experimental science to an intellectual science. It would be the Greeks that
would be the first to transform mathematical statements through logical
arguments. Deductive methods would again be used in the seventeenth and
eighteenth century with the introduction of calculus and continuous functions.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth century, mathematics would again be
transformed with the discoveries of calculus and the discovery of non-
Euclidean geometries.
- Non-Euclidean geometry of the 1820s, various forms of abstract
algebra in the mid 1800s, and the transfinite numbers of the 1880s would
move mathematics away from any obvious connections to everyday life and
towards a more abstract approach in mathematics. At the end of the 1800s
David Hilbert emphasized that all mathematics could be derived by starting
from axioms and using the formal process of proof (Wolfram, 2002).
- “A proof is a directed tree of statements, connected by
implications, whose endpoint is the conclusion and whose starting points are
either in the data or are generally agreed facts or principles” - Bell (as cited in
Almeida, 1994)
 The Greeks and the Birth of Proof

- The Greeks would apply deductive reasoning to all aspects of

thought. Deductive reasoning operates on the premise there are
some known or assumed factors that are true.

- An early example of deductive reasoning goes as

follows: All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, and therefore
Socrates is mortal.
- Mathematics would move away from the strictly
practical applications of the ancient Egyptian and
Babylonian societies and begin its journey toward the
abstract and philosophical nature of mathematics. The
Greeks were the first known society to try and prove
mathematical concepts through mathematical
reasoning (Kleiner, 1991).
 Thales and the First Proof
 Thales of Miletus (634-548 B.C.) is the first person to be given
creditfor discoveries made in mathematics. A Thales early
contribution to Ionian society was in the use of astronomy for
maritime navigation.
 Thales was considered by later generations of Greeks as one of
the seven wise men of Greece. His greatest contribution to
mathematics was his use of deductive reasoning for finding new
mathematical truths. He would use known truthsabout
mathematics to deduce new truths.
 The first proof in the history of mathematics is considered to
be when Thales proved that the diameter of a circle divides a
circle into two equal parts. This is the earliest known recorded
attempt at proving mathematical concepts.

 In Egypt, he would use mathematics to deduce a way to

measure the height of a pyramid using the relation of similar
triangles.
List some other results in which Thales is given credited for are
as follows:

1) A circle is bisected by any diameter.

2) The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
3) The vertical angles formed by two intersecting lines are equal.
4) Two triangles are congruent if they have two angles and one
side in each respectively equal.
5) Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
Thales is the also considered by some historians to be the first
known mathematician to have constructed a circle circumscribed
about a right triangle.
Draw a right triangle ABC. Divide
hypotenuse BC into two equal
segments at point O. Connect O to
Point A. If AO = OC = BO, we can
draw a circle by having O as its center
and AO as its radius. This circle will
then pass through points A, B, and C.
 These theorems were not proved because there was any doubt
in their truth, but instead he was trying to develop a
systematic technique to prove an idea.
 Another aspect of the early proofs was that theywere very
verbal for the symbolism that we are familiar with has not
been developed in this time in history.
 The evolution of the mathematics of this period begins with
Thales and reaches its greatest heights with Euclid’s famous
text Elements that would influence countless mathematicians
for generations to come.
 The Phytagoreans
• Ironically some believe that this famous proof was not actually
proven rigorously by Pythagoras. On the other hand a more
controversial proof would be accredited to a Pythagorean by
the name of Hippasus of Mespontum. He would show that
square root of 2 is an irrational number.
• This proof would so enrage the Pythagoreans that it is said that
they had him drowned for there belief was that the entire
universe could be reduced to whole numbers and their ratios
(Dunham, 1990).
• Euclidean Geometry

 Euclid laid the groundwork for future mathematics by organizing

the known mathematics into definitions, assumptions, and
postulates.
 The postulates represented the axioms in
Euclid’s geometry from which through deductive reasoning he would prove
other concepts in mathematics. The axioms are logical beliefs that are assumed
to be true rather than proven. Euclid’s method of proof would become known
as the Axiomatic Method. Proofs now had a more formal foundation upon
whichto build upon.
 - A good example of an axiomatic treatment of a proof would be
Euclid’s proof of his Proposition 45. I quote it from the English
version given by Sir Thomas L. Heath (1956). The in text numbers
to the right of the statements are Euclid’s references to previously
established results, definitions, assumptions, or axioms.
 Computer Age

- A popular proof that is attributed to the computer is the 1976

resolution of the 1850 four-colour conjecture of topology which
stated that any map or sphere needs at most four colors to color
it so that no two countries sharing a common boundary will have
the same color. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken of the
University of Illinois established the conjecture using a
computer analysis.
 Synthesis
- Proofs are made to justify an idea and support a claim.
- Deductive reasoning is the heart of mathematical proof.
- Start at premise and derive from conclusion with certainty.
Ex: x is a number, such that x-4 = 6.
Then, I can conclude with certinty that x=10.
- Thales from Miletus (Turkey), the first to require deductive
reasoning to be used in order to prove something in
mathematics.
- Theorem- statement that deduced from axioms by logical
arguement.
- Converse: Something that is
opposite or contrary.
- Corollary: Statements form a
theorem that has already
proven.
- If and only if; A logical
statement connecting two
conditions which depend on
each other. Both state,ments
must be true or both false.
- Implies: Suggest a logical
consequence.
- Is Equivalent to: Equal to
Certainty!

Is math an invention
or a discovery?
The role of technology in mathematics

As an Education student who

took up Mathematics as his/her
major, how do you think
techology can help you? Disregard
the pandemic we are experiencing.
Different technologies used overtime
The hornbook originated in
England and served the
function of teaching
children to read, learn math
or to receive religious
instruction. Hornbooks are
somewhat like the more
modern idea of a primer.
“The New England
Primer”
 It was increasingly
used for education
during the 19th century
as it is an early type of
image projector that
used pictures—
paintings, prints, or
photographs.
At the dawn of the
twentieth century,
writing in slates were
the primary tool in the
classroom for students.
A slate is a small,
rectangular blackboard
made from slate stone.
They had two sides and
the edges were wrapped
in leather or wood to
protect students' hands.
In the 1800s, schools
used slates to teach
students reading,
writing, and math.
A chalkboard provides
the educator with an
inexpensive and
adaptable visual aid
which lasts
indefinitely.Visual
reinforcements, like
diagrams, can be
displayed on a
chalkboard to keep
students' attention.
Projectors enable
teachers to create
bulleted PowerPoint
presentations or other
highly organized notes
for the class. With the
use of projectors in the
classroom, students can
take better notes with
the ability to discern
what information the
teacher displays is most
useful to them.
Radio works
with only
voice and
sound, it
helps the
students to
improve their
creativity and
imagination.
The overhead projector
facilitates an easy low-
cost interactive
environment for
educators. The overhead
is typically placed at a
comfortable writing
height for the educator
and allows the educator
to face the class,
facilitating better
communication between
the students and teacher.
A mimeograph is an
old-fashioned copy
machine.
Mimeographs were
often used for making
classroom copies in
schools before
photocopying became
inexpensive in the
mid- to late-twentieth
century.
The teaching machine
was composed of
mainly a program,
which was a system of
combined teaching
and test items that
carried the student
gradually through the
material to be learned.
The “machine” was
composed of a fill-in-
the-blank method on
either a workbook or
on a computer.
Television caters to the
different learning
styles of students, by
offering a unique
combination of sight,
sound, motion and
emotion, which can
give students a greater
understanding of the
world around them.
 They were used
to create an audio-
visual learning
experience in the
classroom. The
projector added a
visual
component/aid
that related to the
subject being
studied.
Calculators are simply a
tool students use to help
solve problems. Since
they eliminate tedious
computations and
algebraic manipulations
that discourage many
students, calculators allow
more students to solve
problems and appreciate
the power and value of
mathematics in the world
today.
The advent of
computers in the
classroom has changed
the shape of education.
Students now have the
opportunity to utilize
Compact Disc-Read
Only Memory (CD-
ROM) for research and
compilation of
information.
A graphing calculator
is a handheld
computer that is
capable of plotting
graphs, solving
simultaneous
equations, and
performing other
tasks with variables.
An interactive whiteboard
in the classroom
provides students with
the technology they
know and understand. It
enhances collaboration
and invites interaction
with the lesson.
Afterwards, students
can see how the
technology they use
connects to the lessons
they learn in school.
Using laptops in
classrooms will
help the students
to learn to type
quickly and
accurately, they
can record notes
much faster than
writing by hand.
 THERE ARE MOBILE AND WEBSITE APPLICATIONS AND LINKS
TROUGH TECHNOLOGY THAT CAN HELP YOU LEARN MATH LIKE
THIS WPS PC EXTENSION, MICROSOFT EXCELL, MATHEMINGWAY,
AND DESMOS CALCULATOR.