CHAPTER 2 (PART 2):

BASIC ENGINEERING
PRINCIPLES

October, 2021
TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE
 Temperature and pressure are critical process variables that affect process
performance. E.g. how fast a chemical reaction will proceed to completion
or how pure the products obtained from a separation device will be.
 Temperature is a base dimension.
 Kelvin (K) and Rankine (oR) scales are both absolute scales
 Celcius (oC) and Fahrenheit (oF) are displaced from Kelvin and Rankine by a constant number.
T(K) = T(OC) + 273.15
T(OR) = T(OF) + 459.67
T(OR) = 1.8T(K)
T(OF) = 1.8T(OC) + 32
T(OC) = 5/9 [T(OF) – 32]
25OC = 77OF = 298.15K = 536.67OR

 Pressure is the ratio of force to the area over which that force acts.
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N = kg
m2 ms2
 Force
Pressure =
Area

Units of Pressure

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101,325 Pa

Barometer
 Ideal Gas
 Gas is a phase where atoms of a
substance are in motion and fill their
container.
 Assumptions about gases that:

1) Particles are points in random motion.

2) The particles don’t interact apart from
elastic collisions, bouncing each one
another.
4 Variables for Ideal Gas

1) Pressure (P) : is the force the gas is exerting on its

container).
2) Temperature (T) : Amount of heat energy available
to be transferred into kinetic energy motion. [higher
T, the faster the partcles move].
3) Volume (V) : how big is the container.
4) Moles (n) : how many particles are there in the
container
 At same moles and If the volume is compressed, the


Pmust go up.
temperature, the same The particles hitting the sides more


number of particles often because there is less distance

to travel to hit a side
moving at the same
Pressure and volume are
speed. inversely proportional
inversely
 Boyle's law is an experimental gas
law that describes how the pressure of
a gas tends to increase as the volume
of the container decreases.

A modern statement of Boyle's law is

The absolute pressure exerted by a given
mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional
to the volume it occupies if the temperature
and amount of gas remain unchanged within
a closed system.

Constant temperature
Constant amount of gas
 The equation states that the product of pressure and
volume is a constant for a given mass (constant) of
confined gas and this holds as long as the temperature is
constant.

 For comparing the same substance under two different

sets of conditions, the law can be usefully expressed as:

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

 The equation shows that, as volume increases, the

pressure of the gas decreases in proportion. Similarly, as
volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases.
As T increases V increases
 Relation of V & T

 Volume & temperature

are directly
proportional.

 When heat is applied, the particles will move

more quickly. Therefore, to keep the P
constant, or particles hit the sides with the
same frequency, the volume will have to
expand.
Charles’ & Gay-Lussac’s Law

Variation of gas volume with

temperature
at constant pressure.

VaT
Temperature must be
V = constant x T in Kelvin

V1/T1 = V2/T2 T (K) = t (0C) + 273.15

Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT
Comprehension
VOLUME, DENSITY & CONCENTRATION

 Volume has dimension m3, L3.

 Volume per mass = specific volume [L3/M]  m3/g
 Volume per mole = molar volume [L3/N]  m3/mol

 Density = the mass (or moles) of a solution per volume of solution.

 Specific density = inverse of specific volume [M/L3]
 Molar density = inverse of molar volume [N/L3]
 Specific gravity = the ratio of the specific density of a substance to the
specific density of water at 4oC (which is the temperature at which water
reaches its maximum density)

 Concentration = the mass (or moles) of a solute per volume of solution.

Dimension [N/L3] or [M/L3]
Solute
 A solute is defined as the substance that is dissolved in a
solution.
 For solutions of fluids, the solvent is present in greater
amount than the solute.
 Concentration is a measurement of the amount of solute
present in a chemical solution, with respect to the amount of
solvent.

Examples of Solutes
 Usually, a solute is a solid that is dissolved into a liquid. An

everyday example of a solute is salt in water. Salt is the solute

that dissolves in water as the solvent to form a saline solution.
 When two liquids are mixed to form a solution, the
solute is the species present in the smaller ratio. For
example, in a 1 M sulfuric acid solution, sulfuric
acid is the solute while water is the solvent.
Solution
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances. A solution may exist in any phase.
 A solution consists of a solute and a solvent. The solute is
the substance that is dissolved in the solvent.
 The amount of solute that can be dissolved in solvent is
called its solubility. For example, in a saline solution, salt is
the solute dissolved in water as the solvent.
 For solutions with components in the same phase, the
substances present in lower concentration are solutes, while
the substance present in highest abundance is the solvent.
 Using air as an example, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases
are solutes, while nitrogen gas is the solvent.
Characteristics of a Solution

A chemical solution exhibits several properties:

 A solution consists of a homogeneous mixture.

 A solution is composed of one phase (e.g., solid, liquid, gas).

Particles in a solution are not visible to the naked eye.

 A solution does not scatter a light beam.

 Components of a solution cannot be separated using simple

mechanical filtration.
Solution Examples

 Any two substances which can be evenly mixed

may form a solution. Even though materials of
different phases may combine to form a solution,
the end result always exists of a single phase.
 An example of a liquid solution is aqueous
 hydrochloric acid (HCl in water). An example of a 
gaseous solution is air.
Solution examples
CONCENTRATION
MOLARITY = No. of moles of solute per liter of solution.
M = no of moles of solute
volume of solution (L)

NORMALITY
Definition: Normality is a measure of concentration equal to the gram equivalent weight per
liter of solution. Gram equivalent weight is the measure of the reactive capacity of a molecule.

The solution's role in the reaction determines the solution's normality.

H2SO4 dissociates into H+ and SO4- ions in water. For every mole of H2SO4 that dissociates in
solution, 2 moles of H+ and 1 mole of SO4- ions are formed. This is where normality is
generally used.

For acid reactions, a 1 M H2SO4 solution will have a normality (N) of 2 N because 2 moles of
H+ions are present per liter of solution.

For sulfide precipitation reactions, where the SO4- ion is the important part, the same 1 M
H2SO4 solution will have a normality of 1 N.
CONCENTRATION

 Example 1:
Calculate the concentration of H2SO4 solution when
98 g of H2SO4 is dissolved in 1.0 liter of water

Concentration, g/L = weight (g) = 98 g = 98.0 g/L

volume (L) 1.0 L
CONCENTRATION

Example 2 :
The concentration of solution B is 12.1 g/L. calculate
the weight of solute present in 2.23 L of its solution.

Weight of solute = concentration x volume

= 12.1 g x 2.23 L = 26.98 g
L
FLOWRATES
 Flowrates = the ratio of flow per time unit

 Volumetric flowrate = [V/t] = m3/s

 Mass flowrate = [M/t] = kg/s
 Molar flowrate = [N/t] = kg/s
 THANK YOU…