SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra

B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroup
Lecture 3

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called
a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called
a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈

Z}
(2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called
a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈

Z}
(2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)
(Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) is a subgroup of (C, +).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈

Z}
(2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)
(Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) is a subgroup of (C, +).
Let M be the set of real 2 × 2 matrices with
determinant
=1. Then M is a subgroup of GL2 (R).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈

Z}
(2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)
(Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) is a subgroup of (C, +).
Let M be the set of real 2 × 2 matrices with
determinant
=1. Then M is a subgroup of GL2(R).
Consider D6. Let S = {I, R120, R240 }. Then S is a
subgroup of D6.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Subgroups

Definition (Subgroup)
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called
a subgroup of G if (H, ∗) is a group.

2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈

Z}
(2Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +)
(Z, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) is a subgroup of (C, +).
Let M be the set of real 2 × 2 matrices with
determinant
=1. Then M is a subgroup of GL2 (R).
Consider D6. Let S = {I, R120, R 240 }. Then S is a
subgroup of D6.
Also {I, F1 }, {I, F2 }, {I, F 3 } are other
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k2 ) ∈
8Z

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k2 ) ∈ 8Z
(since Z is closed under
addition.)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k2 ) ∈ 8Z
(since Z is closed under
addition.) So 8Z is closed under
addition.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k2 ) ∈ 8Z
(since Z is closed under
addition.) So 8Z is closed under
addition.
For any 8k ∈ 8Z,

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k 2 ) ∈ 8Z
(since Z is closed under
addition.) So 8Z is closed under
addition.
For any 8k ∈ 8Z, 8(−k ) ∈ 8Z, which is its additive
inverse.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗) is a subgroup of G
if and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a − 1 ∈ H.

Eg: Consider the set 8Z. 8k1,

8k2 ∈ 8Z where k1, k2 ∈ Z.
Then 8k1 + 8k2 = 8(k1 + k 2 ) ∈ 8Z
(since Z is closed under
addition.) So 8Z is closed under
addition.
For any 8k ∈ 8Z, 8(−k ) ∈ 8Z, which is its additive
inverse.
So by Lemma 3 (8Z, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof:

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H. But H is finite.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p− r = e ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p − r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p − r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a (p−r )−1 ∗ a = a ∗ a (p−r
)−1

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p − r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a (p−r )−1 ∗a = a ∗a (p−r )
−1 = a p−r = e.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p− r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a (p−r )−1 ∗a = a ∗a (p−r )
−1 = a p−r = e.

So a (p−r )−1 = a −1 .

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
a p = ar =⇒ a p − r = e ∈ H.
Now a (p−r )−1 ∗a = a ∗a (p−r )−1 = a p−r = e.
So
So a ∈ H.
e(p−r )−1 = a −1 .

Hence ∀ a ∈ H, a − 1 ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group (G, ∗), and H
is closed under ∗then H is a subgroup of G.

Proof: Since H is non-empty, ∃ a ∈ H.

Since H is closed under ∗, a, a2, ..... ∈
H.
But H is finite. So ∃r, p ∈ Z; p > r such
that
ap = ar =⇒ a p − r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a (p−r )−1 ∗a = a ∗a (p−r )
−1 = a p−r = e.

So a (p−r )−1 = a −1 .
Hence ∀ a ∈ H, a − 1 ∈ H.
By Lemma 3, H is a SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III
Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.
Let us select two pairs of consecutive elements

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.
Let us select two pairs of consecutive elements z1, z2 and
z3, z4 from H.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.
Let us select two pairs of consecutive elements z1, z2 and
z3, z4 from H.
Let a = z2 − z1 and b = z4 − z3.
SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III
Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.
Let us select two pairs of consecutive elements z1, z2 and
z3, z4 from H.
Let a = z2 − z1 and b = z4 − z3.
If possible let a < b. SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III
Proposition (1)
Proposition: 1
For every integer n, nZ is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Every subgroup H of (Z, +) is equal to nZ for some
integer n.

Proof:
The first part of the proposition is already covered in the
example of lemma 3.
We present the proof to the second part of the
proposition. If H = { 0 } then H = 0Z which satisfies the
statement of the proposition.
Let d ƒ= 0 ∈ H.
Then H contains an infinite number of elements since
d Z ⊂ H.
Let us select two pairs of consecutive elements z1, z2 and
z3, z4 from H.
Let a = z2 − z1 and b = z4 − z3.
If possible let a < b.
∈ SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III
Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we
assume b < a.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we assume b < a.
This is depicted in the figure below.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we assume b < a.
This is depicted in the figure below.

We hop in equal steps of a.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we assume b < a.
This is depicted in the figure below.

We hop in equal steps of a.

If a < b then we can’t avoid hopping into the bigger gap
between z3 and z4.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we assume b < a.
This is depicted in the figure below.

We hop in equal steps of a.

If a < b then we can’t avoid hopping into the bigger gap
between z3 and z4.
So the only possibility is that distance between consecutive
elements of H are all equal.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Since z3 and z4 are consecutive elements of H
∃k ∈ Z such that ka ≤ z3 and (k + 1)a ≥ z4.
This implies a ≥ z4 − z3 = b.
This contradict our assumption that a < b.
We will arrive at a similar contradiction if we assume b < a.
This is depicted in the figure below.

We hop in equal steps of a.

If a < b then we can’t avoid hopping into the bigger gap
between z3 and z4.
So the only possibility is that distance between consecutive
elements of H are all equal.
So the only possibility of such a set is nZ.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈
Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈
Z}

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈
Z}
is a subgroup of Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈
Z}
is a subgroup of Z.

Proof: Execise.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈
Z}
is a subgroup of Z.

Proof: Execise.
Eg. 4Z + 6Z = 2Z

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Lemma (5)
Let a, b ∈ Z.
Then aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈
Z}
is a subgroup of Z.

Proof: Execise.
Eg. 4Z + 6Z
= 2Z 9Z + 15Z =
3Z

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both
0.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then
(i) d = ar + bs for some integers r and s.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then
(i) d = ar + bs for some integers r and s.
(ii) d divides a and b.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then
(i) d = ar + bs for some integers r and s.
(ii) d divides a and b.
(iii) d is the g.c.d(a, b)

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then
(i) d = ar + bs for some integers r and s.
(ii) d divides a and b.
(iii) d is the g.c.d(a, b)

Corollary
Corollary: a and b are relatively prime integers, i.e
g.c.d(a, b) = 1 if and only if

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

Proposition (2)
Let a, b ∈ Z not both 0. Let d be the positive integer such
that d Z = aZ + bZ. Then
(i) d = ar + bs for some integers r and s.
(ii) d divides a and b.
(iii) d is the g.c.d(a, b)

Corollary
Corollary: a and b are relatively prime integers, i.e
g.c.d(a, b) = 1 if and only if ∃m, n ∈ Z such that ma + nb =
1.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If H1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
T
H1 H2 is also a subgroup of G(exercise).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8,
−4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}
4Z ∩ 6Z = {... − 24, −12, 0, 12, 24, ..} =

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}
4Z ∩ 6Z = {... − 24, −12, 0, 12, 24, ..} = 12Z

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}
4Z ∩ 6Z = {... − 24, −12, 0, 12, 24, ..} = 12Z
For any two integers a and b , aZ ∩ bZ = k Z
where k = l.c.m(a, b).

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}
4Z ∩ 6Z = {... − 24, −12, 0, 12, 24, ..} = 12Z
For any two integers a and b , aZ ∩ bZ = k Z
where k = l.c.m(a, b).
So for any two integers a and b, such that
d = g.c.d (a, b) and k = l.c.m(a, b), we have

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III

If HT1 and H2 are subgroups of G then we can prove that
H1 H2is also a subgroup of G(exercise).
Consider the subgroup
4Z = {..., −28, −24, −20, −16, −12, −8, −4, 0,
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, ....}
and
6Z = {..., −30, −24, −18, −12, −6, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24,
30, ....}
4Z ∩ 6Z = {... − 24, −12, 0, 12, 24, ..} = 12Z
For any two integers a and b , aZ ∩ bZ = k Z
where k = l.c.m(a, b).
So for any two integers a and b, such that
d = g.c.d (a, b) and k = l.c.m(a, b), we have
aZ + bZ = d Z and aZ ∩ bZ = k Z.

SC 220: Groups and Linear Algebra B.Tech Sem-III