Wollo University

School of ECEG
Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Computer Architecture & Organization

Topic One

12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG

 Definition 2

Computer Architecture:
 “The design of integrated system which provides
a useful tool to the programmer.” (Baer)
 “The study of the structure, behavior, and design
of computer.” (Hayes)
 “The design of the system specification at a
general or subsystem level.” (Abd-Alla)
 “The art of designing a machine that will be a
pleasure to work with.” (Foster)
 “The interface between the hardware and the
lowest level software.” (Hennessy and Patterson)
12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
Cont… 3

- Is the science & art of selecting and

interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and
cost goals
- Deals with the architectural attributes like physical
address memory, CPU and how they should be
designed and made to coordinate with each other
keeping the goals in mind.
- Computer Architecture = Instruction Set
Architecture + Computer Organization
- Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
- WHAT the computer does (logical view)
12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
Cont… 4

- Analogy: “building the design and architecture

of house” – architecture may take more time
due to planning and then organization is
building house by bricks or by latest
technology keeping the basic layout and
architecture of house in mind
- Comes before computer organization

12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG

 Definition 5

Computer Architecture:
Therefore, computer architecture refers to
 Attributes of a system visible to programmers
 Attributes that have direct impact on the
execution of programs
Attributes
 Instruction set
 Number of bits used for data representation
 I/O mechanisms
 Addressing techniques
12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Definition 6

Computer Organization:
- Is how operational attributes/units are liked
together & contribute to realize the architectural
specifications
- Computer Organization
- HOW the ISA is implemented (physical view)
Attributes: hardware details transparent to
programmers such as
 Control signals
 Interface b/n computer & peripherals
 Memory technology used
12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
Architecture and Organization 7

Architecture: interface b/n hw & sw

E.g. instruction set, registers, how to access memory
Organization: components & connections
E.g. how “mult” is implemented
Architecture – is attributes visible to programmers
Organization – is how features are implemented
Example:
- Architecture: multiply instruction?
- Organization: hardware multiply unit or done
by repeated addition? (how is it
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implemented?) Computer Architecture & Organization
Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
Architecture and Organization 8

Family Concept
- All Intel x86 family share the same basic
architecture
- The IBM System/370 family share the same
basic architecture
- This gives code compatibility (at least
backwards)
Organization differs between different
versions

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 9
Structure and Function
Computer system consists of a set of components
and their interrelationships
Structure is the way in which components are
interrelated
Function is the operation of each individual
component as part of the structure

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 10
Function
All computer functions are composed of four
basic operations:
 Data processing
 Data storage
 Data movement –b/n itself & the outside world
 Control

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Data Processing
11

The basic function of any computer is to

process data
Describes arithmetic and logic operations
performed on data
Although end result may be complex, there
are few distinct types of data processing

Computer Architecture & Organization

12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Data Storage
12

Long term
- Logging
- Data records
Short term
- temp variables – e.g., buffer containing the last key
pressed
- program control data – e.g., loop variables

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 13
Data Movement
Computer must be able to communicate with
outside world
Data must be “accessible” to devices outside
computer
Two types:
- Peripheral
- Data communications

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Data movement to a 14

peripheral
Data must be passed between computer and
I/O devices connected to computer
Typically to simple devices
Examples
- Monitors and keyboards
- Data acquisition
- Peripheral control

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Data movement to a 15

remote devices (data

communications)
Data communications is data movement over
a longer range
Typically to smart devices or other
computers

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 16
Control
Something needs to monitor operation and
maintain control of data processing, data
storage, and data movement
Automated control of computer’s resources

Computer Architecture & Organization

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Functional View

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Operations (1) Data Movement

Computer Architecture & Organization

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(2) Storage

Computer Architecture & Organization

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(3) Processing From/To Storage

Computer Architecture & Organization

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(4) Processing From Storage to I/O

Computer Architecture & Organization

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Structure
All of computer linkages to the external env’t can be
classified as peripheral devices or communication line.

Computer Architecture & Organization

The computer
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 23
Contd…
There are four main structural components:
 CPU – controls the operation of the computer
& performs its data processing functions
 Main memory – stores data
 I/O – moves data b/n computer & its external
env’t
 System interconnection – mechanism that
provides for communication among CPU, main
memory, & I/O

Computer Architecture & Organization

12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Structure – Top Level 24

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Structure – The CPU 25

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Structure – The Control Unit 26

Computer Architecture & Organization

12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Summary: Operation of a Computer 27
System
Computer accepts information in the form of
programs & data through an input unit and stores it in
the memory.
Information stored in the memory is fetched under the
program control into the ALU, where it is processed.
Processed information leaves the computer through
an output unit.
All activities inside the machine are directed by CPU.
To perform a given task, an appropriate program
(consisting of a list of instructions) is stored in the
memory.
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Summary: Operation of a Computer 28
System
Individual instructions are brought from the memory
into the processor which executes the specified
operation.
Data transfers between memory & processor are
started by sending the address of the memory location
to be accessed to the memory and issuing the
appropriate control signals.
Data then transferred to or from the memory.
In addition to ALU & CU circuitry, the CPU contains a
number of registers used for several different purposes.

Computer Architecture & Organization

12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Summary: Operation of a Computer 29
System
Instruction Pointer (IP) – holds the instruction that
is currently being executed.
Program Counter (PC) – specialized register
which contains the memory address of the next
instruction to be fetched and executed.
MAR (Memory Address Register) – holds the
address of the location to be accessed.
MDR (Memory Data Register) – contains data to
be written into or read out of the addressed
location.
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 30

Computer History and Evolution

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 31
Introduction
Evolution of computers has been
characterized by:
increasing speed,
decreasing component size,
increasing memory size, and
increasing I/O capacity and speed.

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 32
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator &
Computer)
 first general purpose electronic digital computer
 designed to calculate trajectory tables for weapons
 decimal (not binary)
 Its memory consisted of 20 “accumulators”, each
capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number
 140kw power consumption
 5,000 additions per second
 18,000 vacuum tubes
 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 6,000 switches
Drawback – programmed manually
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Computer Architecture & Organization
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 Second Generation: 33

Transistor were Transistor

used to design ALU & CU
Magnetic core- memory
HLL used: FORTRAN, COBOL & ALGOL
To convert HLL to MLL compiler were used
System software: compilers, subroutine libraries,
batch processing
E.g., IBM 7094
Separate I/O processor were developed to operate in
parallel with CPU, thus improving the performance
Invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller
and required considerably less power to operate
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Third Generation: IC 34

IC technology improved
Improved IC technology helped in designing low
cost, high speed processor and memory modules
Multiprogramming, pipelining concepts were
incorporated
DOS allowed efficient and coordinate operation of
computer system with multiple users
Cache & virtual memory concepts were developed
More than one circuit on a single silicon chip
became available
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Fourth Generation: VLIC 35

CPU –Termed as microprocessor

INTEL, MOTOROLA, TEXAS,NATIONAL
semiconductors started developing
microprocessor
Workstations, microprocessor (PC) & Notebook
computers were developed
Interconnection of different computer for better
communication LAN,MAN,WAN
Computational speed increased by 1000 times
Specialized processors like Digital Signal
Processor were also developed
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Fifth Generation 36

Also termed as knowledge information processing

systems
Scientists have also tried to develop new
superconductors that can conduct electricity with no
resistance, thus generating no heat but great speed.
These generations are with new parallel
architecture, new memory organization and new
languages.
These are functionally and conceptually different
from the first four generations.
Most of these are used in artificial intelligence,
Satellite connectivity etc.
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Computer Architecture & Organization
Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
 Application

Algorithm

High-level Language

Operating System

ISA

Microarchitecture

Logic

Transistor
Computer Architecture & Organization
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 Von Neumann Architecture 38

Von Neumann & his colleagues

 developed concept of storing a program in memory –
IAS (Institute for Advanced Studies) computer
 Features:
- Data & instructions (programs) are stored in a single
read-write memory
- Memory contents are addressable by location,
regardless of the content itself
- Sequential execution
- ALU operating on binary data
- Control unit – interprets instructions in memory &
causes them to be executed
- Input & outputComputer
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equipment operated by control unit
Architecture & Organization
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 Structure of the IAS computer 39

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 IAS – Details 40

Memory of IAS
 consists 1000 storage locations – words, of 40
binary digits (bits) each
 both data & instructions are stored there
 each number represented by sign bit & 39-bit
value
 Word – may contain two 20-bit instructions, with
each instruction consisting of
- 8-bit operation code (opcode) – specifying the
operation to be performed and
- 12-bit address designing one of the words in
12/4/22 memory (0 - 999)
Computer Architecture & Organization
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 IAS Memory Formats 41

Computer Architecture & Organization

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Cont… 42

Control unit operates the IAS by fetching instructions from

memory and executing them one at a time
Both control unit & ALU contain storage locations -
registers (storage in CPU)
Register – fast stand-alone storage locations that hold data
temporarily
- Memory Buffer Register (MBR) – contains a word to
be stored in memory or sent to I/O unit or is used to
receive a word from memory or from I/O unit
- Memory Address Register (MAR) – specifies the
address in memory of the word to be written from or
read into the MBR
- Instruction Register (IR) – contain the 8-bit opcode
Computer Architecture & Organization
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Cont… 43

- Instruction Buffer Register (IBR) – employed to

hold temporarily the right-hand instruction from a
word in memory
- Program Counter (PC) – contains the address of
the next instruction-pair to be fetched from the
memory
- Accumulator (AC) & Multiplier Quotient (MQ)
– employed to hold temporarily operands & results
of ALU operations.
• E.g., result of multiplying two 40-bit numbers is
80-bit number,
• most significant 40 bits (result) stored in the AC
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significant
Architecture & in
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the MQ
Organization
 Register Summary 44

Register Number Register Register

symbol of bits name Function-----------------------
DR 16 Data register Holds memory operands
AR 12 Address register Holds address for memory
AC 16 Accumulator Processor register
IR 16 Instruction register Holds instruction code
PC 12 Program counter Holds address of instruction
TR 16 Temporary register Holds temporary data
INPR 8 Input register Holds input character
OUTR 8 Output register Holds output character

Computer Architecture & Organization

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 Structure of IAS – detail 45

12/4/22 Computer Architecture & Organization Wubishet G. WU – ECEG

 Summary of Generations 46

First Second Third Fourth Fifth

1985
Time Frame 1942-1955 1955-1964 1964-1975 1975 - 1985
onwards

Integrated
LSI (Large VLSI (very
Circuit Vacuum Circuit
Transistor scale Large scale
Component Tube (Silicon
Integration ) Integration)
Chip)
Magnetic
Internal drum, Tape Magnetic Magnetic Integrated Integrated
Storage & Punched Cores Disks Circuits Circuits
cards
Memory
Capacity 4,000 32,000 128,000 100 million >100 million
(Characters)
IBM 360,
Popular IBM 650, IBM-1401, IBM 303X,
Honeywell ?
computers Univac – I CDC 36000 Univac 6000
200
Computer Architecture & Organization
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 Summary of Generations 47

Ge Example Hardware Software Performance

n. Machines
1 ENIAC, UNIVAC Vacuum tubes, Machine code, 2 Kb memory, 10
I, IBM 700 magnetic drums stored programs KIPS
2 IBM 7094 Transistors, High level 32 Kb memory,
Core memory languages 200 KIPS
3 IBM 360 370, Ics, semiconductor Time sharing, 2 Mb memory,
PDP 11 memory, graphics, 5 MIPS
microprocessors structured
programming
4 IBM 3090, VLSI, Packaged 8 Mb memory,
Cray XMP, Networks, programs, OO 30 MIPS
IBM PC Optical disks languages,
expert systems
5 Sun Sparc, ULSI, GaAs, Parallel 64 Mb memory,
Intel Paragon Parallel systems languages 10 GFLOPS
symbolic
12/4/22 processing, AI
Computer Architecture & Organization
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RTN(Register Transfer Notation) 48

used to describe hardware-level data transfers and

operations
Transfer of information from one location to another
Possible locations involved:
- Memory locations:
- Processor registers:
- Registers in I/O subsystems:
Identify a location by a symbolic name standing for
its hardware binary address
- Memory locations: LOC, PLACE, A, VAR2
- Processor registers: R0, R5
- Registers in I/O subsystems: DATAIN, OUTSTATUS
Computer Architecture & Organization
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Cont… 49

Use […] to denote contents of a location

Use ← to denote transfer to a destination
Example: R2 ← [LOC]
(transfer from LOC in memory to register R2)
RTN can be extended to also show
arithmetic operations involving locations
Example: R4 ← [R2] + [R3]
(add the contents of registers R2 and R3,
place the sum in register R4)
Right-hand expression always denotes a value,
left-hand side always names a location
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22 Wubishet G. WU – ECEG
Cont… 50

Identify a location by a symbolic name standing

for its hardware binary address (LOC, R0, …)
Contents of a location are denoted by placing
square brackets around the name of the location
- R1 [LOC],
- R3 [R1] + [R2]
Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
- RHS  Value, LHS  location where value is to be
stored

Computer Architecture & Organization

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Gate Delay (Propagation Delay) 51

Propagation or gate delay - the length of time which

starts when the input to a logic gate becomes stable &
valid, to the time that the output of that logic gate is
stable & valid.
Reducing gate delays allows them to
- process data at a faster rate and
- improve overall performance
Say logic gate input changes its state, outputs change
instantaneously its state as a result
However, the output will not change instantaneously
Instead, the output will change after a small delay
- call this delay “gate” or “propagation” delay
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 End
Computer Architecture & Organization
12/4/22
Wubishet G. WU – ECEG