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Chapter Two
Chapter Two
Chapter Two:
THE NATURE OF MATERIALS
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Importance of Materials in
Manufacturing
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Element Groupings
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Periodic Table
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Atomic Structure and the
Elements
The basic structural unit of matter is the atom
Each atom is composed of a positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of
negatively charged electrons so the charges are
balanced
More than 100 elements, and they are the
chemical building blocks of all matter
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Simple Model of Atomic
Structure for Several Atoms
(a) Hydrogen, (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, and
(e) sodium
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Bonding between Atoms and
Molecules
Atoms are held together in molecules by various
types of bonds
1. Primary bonds - generally associated with
formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated with
attraction between molecules
Primary bonds are much stronger than secondary
bonds
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Primary Bonds
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Ionic Bonding
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Covalent Bonding
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Two Examples of
Covalent Bonding
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Metallic Bonding
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Secondary Bonds
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
London Forces
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Hydrogen Bonding
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Macroscopic Structures of Matter
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Crystalline Structure
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Three Crystal Structures in
Metals
Three types of crystal structure: (a) body-centered
cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, and (c) hexagonal
close-packed
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Crystal Structures for Common
Metals
Room temperature crystal structures for some of the
common metals:
Body‑centered cubic (BCC)
Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
Face‑centered cubic (FCC)
Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
Hexagonal close‑packed (HCP)
Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals
Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying material
to continue replication of unit cell, e.g., grain boundaries in
metals.
Grain boundary: is the interface between two grains, or
crystallites, in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundaries are
2D defects in the crystal
structure, and tend to
decrease the electrical
and thermal conductivity
of the material.
Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals
Imperfections can also be introduced purposely; e.g.,
addition of alloying ingredient in metal
Types of defects: (1) point defects, (2) line defects,
(3) surface defects
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Point Defects
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Edge Dislocation
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Screw Dislocation
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Point and Line Defects Comparison
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Surface Defects
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Effect of Dislocations on
Strain
In the series of diagrams, the movement of the dislocation allows deformation to occur under a lower
stress than in a perfect lattice.
Slip is the large displacement of one part of a crystal relative to another part along crystallographic
planes and directions. Slip occurs by the passage of dislocations on close packed planes
Slip on a Macroscopic Scale
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Twinning
A second mechanism
of plastic deformation
in which atoms on one
side of a plane (the
twinning plane) are
shifted to form a mirror
image of the other side
Before
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Twinning
After
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Polycrystalline Nature of Metals
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Grains and Grain Boundaries in
Metals
How do polycrystalline structures form?
As a volume of metal cools from the molten state and
begins to solidify, individual crystals nucleate at
random positions and orientations throughout the
liquid
These crystals grow and finally interfere with each
other, forming at their interface a surface defect ‑ a
grain boundary, which are transition zones, perhaps
only a few atoms thick
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Noncrystalline (Amorphous)
Structures
Water and air have noncrystalline structures
A metal loses its crystalline structure when melted
Some engineering materials have noncrystalline forms
in their solid state
Glass
Many plastics
Rubber
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Features of Noncrystalline
Structures
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Crystalline versus Noncrystalline
Structures of Materials
Difference in structure between: (a) crystalline and
(b) noncrystalline materials
Crystal structure is regular, repeating; noncrystalline
structure is less tightly packed and random
(a) (b)
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Volumetric Effects
Characteristic change in
volume for a pure metal
(a crystalline structure),
compared to same
volumetric changes in
glass (a noncrystalline
structure)
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Summary: Characteristics of
Metals
Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost
without exception
BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
Atoms held together by metallic bonding
Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
FCC metals are generally ductile
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Summary: Characteristics of
Ceramics
Most ceramics have crystalline structures, while glass
(SiO2) is amorphous
Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent bonding,
or both
Properties: high hardness and stiffness, electrically
insulating, refractory, and chemically inert
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Summary: Characteristics of
Polymers
Many repeating mers in molecule held together by
covalent bonding
Polymers usually carbon plus one or more other
elements: H, N, O, and Cl
Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of
amorphous and crystalline
Properties: low density, high electrical resistivity, and
low thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary
widely
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version