MODULE 2:

BREEDING METHODS
OVERVIEW

 This module gives a comprehensive discussion of reproduction in plants. It is a basic

knowledge needed to understand fully how reproduction takes place in plants and is
necessary in understanding crop improvement and breeding methods. There are also some
activities that will broaden your understanding on reproduction in plants.

 Plant breeding involves the genetic alteration of plants to satisfy human needs. It is one of
the most urgent tasks as there is an increase in demand for plant products to meet the
demand of the growing human population and the depletion of fossil resources. Since
environmental and aerial pollution has a negative impact on soil, water, and climate, it
creates increasing stress for growth. Harnessing crops against stress factors is a second
essential task for plant breeding. A third challenge is exploiting novel types of crops for
producing raw materials, bio-chemicals, bio-fuels, or novel types of food and feed.
 1.0 MODES OF REPRODUCTION OF CROP SPECIES

 The breeding procedures that may be used to improve characteristics of plants is dependent on
the mode of reproduction of a particular crop. To develop an efficient breeding procedure, there
should be a clear understanding of the details of pollination, fertilization and seed development.

 Plant reproduction is the production of new offspring in plants.

 There are two types of reproduction. These are 1) by seeds or sexual and 2) by vegetative parts
or asexual.

 With sexual reproduction, specialized reproductive cells, which are caIled gametes are formed.
These gametes are formed by the process of gametogenesis. The fusion of the male and female
gametes results in the development of an embryo which develop into seeds.
1.1 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Plants have two major parts: the vegetative part and the reproductive part.
When we say vegetative part, these are parts of the plant which is made of
roots, stems, and leaves. These are actually plant parts which are not
involved in sexual reproduction.

 The reproductive part of the plant would refer to the flower. The flower is the
plant part involved in sexual reproduction. It is where gametes are formed. It
is also where pollination, fertilization and seed development occur.

 Take a look at the illustration of a flower below. You will also notice that the
parts of the flower are labeled.
GENERALLY, THE FLOWER HAS FOUR FLORAL ORGANS. THESE ARE THE SEPALS,
THE PETALS, THE STAMEN, AND THE PISTIL (WHICH IS ALSO CALLED CARPEL). THE
SEPALS AND PETALS ARE CONSIDERED THE ACCESSORY PARTS WHILE THE STAMEN
AND PISTIL ARE CONSIDERED THE ESSENTIAL PARTS.
 THE FOLLOWING ARE THE KINDS OF FLOWERS:

1. Complete flower – The complete flower contains all four floral organs (sepals, petals, stamen
and pistil).

2. Incomplete flower – This flower lacks one or more of the floral organs.

3. Perfect flower – This is the flower that bears stamen and pistil in the same flower structure.

4. Imperfect flower – This is a flower in which one of the essential organs is absent. If it bears
only the stamen without the pistil, it is called a staminate flower. If it bears only the pistil without
the stamen, it is called a pistillate flower.

 Relative to this, crop plants in which staminate and pistillate flowers are borne in the same plant
are called monoecious plants. If staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on different plants,
these are called dioecious plants.
1.2 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 The normal or common method of reproduction is by seeds. But

some crops produce seeds so poorly. Also, some plants require
special conditions to produce seeds. In these cases, vegetative or
asexual method of reproduction is resorted to as a means for their
increase.

 Vegetative reproduction utilizes the vegetative parts of the plant. It

may also utilize specialized organs which some crops produce.
Examples of crops vegetatively reproduced or propagated are
potato (tubers), sugar cane (stem section) or stem cuttings.
Activity 1.0
The Flower
 

1. Find a flower in your yard or neighboring area. (Please follow appropriate health protocol.)
2. Draw the particular flower.
3. Label the parts correctly.
4. Describe the parts of the flower and identify its function.
5. Classify what kind of flower it is.
6. All activities should be properly documented.
 
 
Activity 1.2
Vegetative Reproduction
Fill up the following table by identifying the different specialized organs. Describe each one correctly. Paste
a picture of the example of the crop with the specialized organ.
 
     
Specialized Organ Description Example
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     

 
     
2.0 POLLINATION CONTROL

 Pollination is the transfer of the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. The means of
pollen transfer varies with different crops. If you still remember your science classes, there
are many agents of pollination like the wind, and the insects.

 Pollination can be self-pollination or cross-pollination. Self-pollination is the transfer of the

pollen grain from an anther to the stigma within the same flower or to a stigma of another
flower on the same plant.

 Cross-pollination is the transfer of the pollen to the stigma in a flower on a different plant.

 From the breeding standpoint, field crop plants which reproduce by sexual means may be
grouped according to their usual method of pollination: 1) normally self-pollinated; 2)
normally cross-pollinated and 3) both self- and cross-pollinated.
 3.0 FERTILIZATION

 Once pollination have occurred, fertilization may follow. Fertilization is the union of the male and female
gametes. Fertilization resulting from the union of a sperm and an egg produced on the same plant is
called self-fertilization. On the other hand, the union of a sperm and an egg from different plants is cross-
fertilization.

 In plants, reproduction is attained by fertilization; more precisely double fertilization.

 Double fertilization is a major characteristic of flowering plants. In this process, two male gametes fuse
with one female gamete wherein one male gamete fertilizes the egg to form a zygote, whereas the other
fuses with two polar nuclei to form an endosperm.

 Angiosperms are flower-bearing plants and are the most diverse group of terrestrial plants. The flowers
form the reproductive part of angiosperms with separate male and female reproductive organs. Each
contains gametes – sperm and egg cells, respectively
 HOW DOES DOUBLE FERTILIZATION OCCUR?

 If you remember the parts of the flower, the essential parts are the stamen and the
pistil. The stamen is the male part of the flower. It is composed of the anther where
the pollen grains are formed. The stalk that holds the anther is called the filament.

 The female part of the flower is the pistil (also called carpel). It is composed of the
stigma, style and ovary. By pollination, the pollen grain is transferred from the anther
to the stigma. There will be formation of the pollen tube. The sperm nuclei travels
through the pollen tube to go to the embryo sac. When it reaches the embryo sac, one
of the sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus which forms the embryo. The other
sperm nucleus fuses with the fusion of polar nuclei. This form the endosperm. These
two fusions accomplish double fertilization in flowering plants.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_fertilization#/media/
File:Mature_flower_diagram.svg
3.0 BREEDING METHODS

3.1 Methods of breeding self-pollinated crops

The breeding methods that have proved successful

with self-pollinated species are: (1) mass selection; (2)
pure-line selection; (3) hybridization, with the segregating
generations handled by the pedigree method, the
bulk method, or by the backcross method; and (4)
development of hybrid varieties.
 A. INTRODUCTION

 Plant introduction - According to Allard (1960) plant

introduction is an oldest and rapid method of crop
improvement. Introduction may involve new varieties of a
crop already grown in the area, wild relatives of the crop
species or totally new crop species for that area.
 Plant introduction may be within the country, between the
countries, or confirmed between the states or within the
state. The plant may be introduced from the country of
another continent . It is the process of introducing crop
plant into new areas.
 INTRODUCTION MAYBE CLASSIFIED IN
TWO:
a) Primary

 When the introduced variety is well suited to the new environment and
is directly released for commercial cultivation without any change the
original genotype, it is known as primary introduction.

b) Secondary

 The introduced variety is subjected to selection, to isolate superior

variety or may be hybridized with local variety to transfer one or few
desirable characters to the local variety, it is known as secondary
introduction.
 MERITS OF PLANT INTRODUCTION

1. It provides entirely new crop plants.

2. It provides superior varieties either directly or after selection & hybridization.

3. Introduction and exploration are the only feasible means of collecting germplasm and to protect
variability from genetic erosion.

4. It is very quick & economical method of crop improvement, particularly when the introductions are
released as varieties either directly or after a simple selection.

5. Plants may be introduced in new disease- free areas to protect them from damage, e.g., coffee and
rubber
DEMERITS OF PLANT INTRODUCTION

The disadvantages of plant

introduction are associated with
the introduction of weeds,
diseases and pests.
 B. SELECTION
SELECTION IS A PROCESS BY WHICH INDIVIDUAL PLANTS OR GROUP OF PLANTS ARE
SORTED OUT FROM MIXED POPULATIONS.

a. Mass selection

 If a group of similarly appearing plants is selected and harvested , and the seed is composited,
the resulting mixture is known as mass selection.

 In mass selection, plants are chosen on the basis of the phenotype and the harvested seed is
composited without progeny testing.

 Mass selection has two weaknesses

1. It is not possible to know whether the plants being grouped are homozygous or heterozygous .

2. It is not possible to know whether the selected phenotype is superior in appearance owing to
hereditary characters or environment
b. Pureline selection

 A progeny descendant solely by self-pollination from a single homozygous plant is

known as pureline.

 Pureline variety is developed by increasing the self-fertilized progeny from as

single, true-breeding plants. It is more uniform than the ones developed by mass
selection. Pureline selection may be practiced by farmers who may observe off-
type plants in their fields. They may practice roguing which is the removal of off-
types and diseased plant or plant parts in the field. Unlike mass selection, progeny
test is essential in pureline selection in order to evaluate the breeding behavior of
selected plants. New genotypes are not created by pureline selection.
FACTORS AFFECTING LENGTH OF PURITY
OF PURELINES

1. The particular crop

2. The genetic stability of the crop

3. Amount of natural cross-pollination

4. The care with which it is produced

PURELINES MAY BECOME IMPURE AS A
RESULT OF:

a.Mechanical mixtures of seeds from

other varieties
b.Natural crossing with other varieties
c.Mutations
HYBRIDIZATION

 In hybridization, two varieties are

crossed, and plants in which are
combined with desirable features of the
parents are selected from segregating
progenies and testing.
TECHNIQUES OF CROSSING

1. Removing of anthers before pollen is shed

2. Collecting viable pollen from male parent variety

3. Transferring it to the stigma of the emasculated plant

 The exact procedures for emasculation and crossing vary with the crop and thorough
knowledge of flowering habits.
a. Pedigree selection

 Plants with desired combination of characters are selected in F2 and the progenies of
each selected plants reselected in succeeding generations until genetic purity is
reached. It is advantageous if characteristics to be combined can be easily seen and
used as a basis for selection during the early generations but it requires much work
and careful record-taking.

b. Bulk-population method

 It is simple, convenient and inexpensive. Also, less work is required. It is necessary to

grow several thousands of selected plants in order to have a reasonable chance of
finding desirable segregates from bilk population.
Multiple Crossing

Multiple crossing is a complex system in which 8-16 varieties are systematically crossed to
produce new varieties of self-pollinated crops.

A X B C X D E X F G X H

AB X CD EF X GH

ABCD X EFGH

ABCDEFGH

Multiple crossing has the advantage of bringing together quickly combinations of genes from several
parents. It has the disadvantage of producing undesirable combinations since large number of parent
varieties is involved.
c. The Backcross

 The backcross is a form of recurrent hybridization by which a superior characteristic

may be added to an otherwise desirable variety.

 The adapted parent to which the superior character is being added and enters into
each backcross is the recurrent parent.

 The donor parent for the superior character and does not enter into the backcross is
the non-recurrent parent.

 Backcross procedure is most easily carried out if the superior character being added
is: a) simply inherited, 2) dominant, and c) easily recognized in the hybrid plants.
 3.2 METHODS OF BREEDING CROSS-POLLINATED CROPS

A.Selection

a. Mass selection

 Mass selection is a selection procedure in which individual plants

with desirable traits are chosen and bulked together to grow the
following generation.

 Mass selection is based in phenotypic selection and does not

require progeny testing. The purpose of mass selection is to obtain
a greater frequency of superior genotypes within the population.
b. Progeny selection and line breeding
 Progeny selection (plant-to-row) is a procedure in which progenies are
grown in individual plots in order to determine the breeding behavior of
selected plants. By progeny test, plants whose superiority is due to
genetic variation may be distinguished from plants whose superiority is
due to the environment.

c. Recurrent selection

 Recurrent selection is used with crops to concentrate genes for particular

quantitative characteristic in a population without a marked loss of
genetic variability.
A. Hybridization

a. Intervarietal and interspecific crossing

 Intervarietal crosses (between varieties) or interspecific crossing

(between species) maybe used to combine genes for desirable
characteristics from different plants.

b. Utilization of hybrid vigor

 Hybrid vigor or heterosis is the increase in size and vigor after

crossing. In this case, F1 is more vigorous than parent stocks.
UTILIZATION OF HYBRID VIGOR INVOLVES 3 STEPS:

1)Production of uniform homozygous inbred lines

2)Crossing inbreds in combinations that give
uniform and productive single cross (F1) hybrids
3)Crossing single crosses in combinations to give
productive double cross hybrids