Leather Industries (CH 232)

Syed Kamal Zafar

2 Introduction

“Leather is a durable and flexible material created via tanning from

putrescible raw hides and skins, primarily from cattle hide.
Hide is cured and processed to make it durable and easy to manipulate.”

• The tanning process derives its name from tannin (tannic acid), the agent that displaces water from
the interstices of the hide’s protein fibres and cements these fibres together and converts the skin to a
stable and non-decaying material.
• Tanning is the process of controlled denaturation of protein of the raw hides and skins.
• The basic raw material for tanning industry is a by-product of the meat processing industry.
• The term hide is used to designate the skin of larger animals (e.g., cowhide or horsehide), whereas
“skin” refers to that of smaller animals (e.g., calfskin or kidskin).
3 Introduction

• When an animal is alive, its skin is soft, flexible, very tough and hard wearing: it has the ability to
allow water vapour to pass out, but it will not allow water in. When the skin dies it loses these
characteristics: if it is kept wet it rots, and if it is dried it goes hard and brittle.

• The process of tanning is to retain the skin's natural properties, to stabilise its structure and at the same
time to chemically process it so it will no longer be subject to putrefaction. Thus leather is animal skin
that has been treated such that its natural properties are retained.

• Leather can be obtained from cows, goat, sheep, camel etc.

 4 History of leather Making
Beginning with simple drying and curing
techniques, the process of vegetable tanning was
400 B.C developed by the Egyptians and Hebrews about
400 BC
leather tanning was once more
1500 A.D widespread in Europe

21st Century
chemical tannage—
in particular, the use
of chrome salts—was
introduced.
1893 A.D
5000 B.C Middle Ages By the mid-19th century, power-driven
Primitive man dried fresh skins in the During the Middle Ages the Arabs preserved machines that performed such
sun, softened them by pounding in the art of leather making and so improved it operations as splitting, fleshing, and
animal fats and brains, and preserved that it became highly prized leathers. dehairing were introduced.
them by salting and smoking.
is immune to abrasion in moist & Leather is warm in winter and cool
dry environments which makes lit a in summer.
wonderful protector of human pores

The
and skin.

pr
Im asio

o
r
p
abr
mu

m
The atmosphere of modern

e r
ost
ne

t
cities is polluted from the

ies
Leather can be moulded

a
burning of carbon fuels

to

t
n
and will retain its new

ic
Resi Mou
with sulphur dioxide gas, stan ld
chem ce to
abil shape. It has both elastic
which can accelerate the
ity
i
deterioration of leather. atta cal and plastic properties in
ck Properties wear.
Modern leathers are
tanned and dressed to

ce ry
is an ion
ce

to
resist these harmful

a dd
n

Re et ras
ta gi These properties, concerned
chemicals.  is

w ab
s fu n with wear & maintenance,

n
e

Resistance
R o

to fire &

t
t are controlled by the tannage

water

s
and surface finish.
Leather is resistant to
mildew
Leather is inherently resistant to heat,
flame and water.
6 Composition of Hide/Skin
The skin - the largest organ in the human body comprising 12-15% of body weight. The skin is our outer
covering and has very important vital functions for keeping the physiological and biochemical conditions of
the body in its optimum state.
The most important functions of the skin are: 
• Regulates body temperature.
• Prevents loss of essential body fluids, and penetration of toxic substances.
• Protection of the body from harmful effects of the sun and radiation.
• Excretes toxic substances with sweat.
• Mechanical support.
• Sensory organ for touch, heat, cold and emotional sensations.
• Vitamin D synthesis from its precursors under the effect of sunlight and introversion of steroids.
 7 Skin Layers

Skin has three layers:

• The hides of mammals are composed of three layers: epidermis, a thin outer layer; corium, or dermis, the thick
central layer; and a subcutaneous fatty layer called Hypodermis.
• The corium is used to make leather after the two sandwiching layers have been removed
8 Skin Layers
• Skin is made up of many bundles of interwoven
protein fibres which are able to move in relation to
one another when the skin is alive. When the skin
dies, these fibres tend to shrivel and stick together.
Essentially, the purpose of tanning is to
permanently fix the fibres apart by chemical
treatment, and to lubricate them so they can move
in relation to one another. Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins

• Well tanned leather, retains the properties of flexibility, toughness and wear. It also continues to 'breathe', allowing
water vapour to pass through but remaining reasonably water-proof.
• In addition, the process of tanning imparts the advantage of resistance to heat, colour, texture and finish to the
leather, to enhance its appearance and suit it to today's fashion requirements
9 Composition of Hide
Fresh hides contain between 60-70% water by
weight and 30-35% protein. About 85% of the
protein is collagen, a fibrous protein held together
by chemical bonds.

• Basically, leather making is the science of using

acids, bases, salts, enzymes, and tannins to dissolve
fats and non-fibrous proteins and strengthen the
bonds between the collagen fibres.
• The basic component of the skin is collagen, a fibrous protein which consists of twined triple units of
peptide chains of differing lengths. The amino acid residues are joined together by peptide links.

• Autolysis of collagen, in fact, starts just following the death of the animal due to the activity of spoilage
bacteria producing proteolytic enzymes
10 Composition of Collagen

• Physically, the skin consists of tiny interwoven collagen fibres, each of which in its turn is made up of tiny
fibrils. The tanner aims to separate these fibres, remove any unwanted matter from the structure and
stabilise and preserve it, whilst retaining the useful properties.
• Skin collagen is usually associated with keratin (the protein in hair, wool and nails). Most mammals have
an outer coat of hair, wool or fur, which acts as an insulating layer and keeps the animal warm.
• Keratin is a fibrous protein and different from collagen in one very important aspect: the polypeptide
chains are linked together by cystine linkages. The early part of leather production is the removal of hair
from the skin, and the presence of the cystine linkage makes it possible for this to be achieved.
11 Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather:

1. Vegetable Tanning
2. Chrome Tanning
3. Aldehyde Tanning
4. Formaldehyde Tanning
5. Brain Tanning
6. Rose Tanning 
7. Alum Tanning
12
Ve g e t a b l e Ta n n i n g

• Vegetable tanning is to process the hides in a pure and natural way without using harmful
chemicals. The process is used in order to stabilise the skins and be able to process the resulting
leather by taking the advantage of the tannic acids naturally found in some plants.
• The actual tanning process takes between one and three months but can be accelerated with the
addition of synthetic tanning agents.
• Tanning starts with a penetration process, leaving the combination of hides and natural tanning acids
rest until the tan is well into the leather.
• It is the true "chemical-free" method, and does not have harmful chemicals.
• The natural appearance before painted, has a slightly brownish tinge over a beige color, with a
natural, woody and earthy smell.

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
13
Ve g e t a b l e Ta n n i n g
• Advantages • Disadvantages
 colors and textures have a more natural and  Production time (about two months);

organic look  High consumption of water.

 high durability and strength, being even far  Is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if 

more efficient than the majority of the left to soak and then dry it will shrink and

synthetic materials; become less supple and harder. In hot water, it 

 neutral effect on user's health will shrink drastically and partly gelatinize, bec

 can last an entire lifetime and/or is bio- oming rigid and eventually brittle.

degradable when it ceases to be  executed by experienced and hard to find

used/maintained; workers.
 very high final costs.
Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
14
C h r o m e Ta n n i n g

• The most popular and controversial tanning method using chrome surfate and other chromium salts
which adds up to 80% of the global leather supply.
• It is effective and fast (within a few days) to produce a soft and uniform leather and does not
discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned.
• The raw appearance is pale blue in color (known as wet-blue for its color derived from the
chromium) and with a strong chemical smell that frequently remains in the final product.
• However, there are environmental concerns with this tanning method as chromium salts is harmful
to the human and environmental health, it is a carcinogenic, persistent and indestructible chemical.

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
15

Difference
between Vegetable
and Chrome
Tanning

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
16
A l d e h y d e / F o r m s l d e h y d e / B r a i n Ta n n i n g

•  Is advertised as the "chromium-free" method and mainly used in the automotive, clothing and
footwear industry for infants.
• Is tanned using Formaldehyde (a pungent smelling gas) which is water soluble and its solution is
known as formalin(toxic and may develop acidity, contains 40 % formaldehyde ).
• Formaldehyde is probably the only tanning gas and is used for tanning white, washable leathers
with the grain split or shaved off.  
• This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet white leather due to its pale cream or white
colour.
• But the formaldehyde, base chemical in this process, is dangerous, and the toxicity .

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
17
R o s e Ta n n i n g

• is a variation of vegetable oil tanning and brain

tanning, where pure rose-otto replaces the vegetable
oil and emulsified oils.
• Rose-tanned leather tanned leaves a powerful rose
fragrance even years from when it is manufactured.
• It has been called the most valuable leather on earth,
but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and
its labor-intensive tanning process.

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
18
A l u m Ta n n i n g

• transformed using aluminium salts (Aluminum Sulphate) mixed with a variety of binders and protein

 sources, such as flour and egg yolk.
• Alum-tanned leather is technically not tanned, as tannic acid is not used, and the resulting material
reverts to rawhide if soaked in water long enough to remove the alum salts.
•  Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple
 as vegetable-tanned leather.

Ty p e s o f Ta n n i n g
19 Manufacturing Process
20 Manufacturing Process
 Leather manufacturing process
• Leather manufacturing processes are subdivided into three
fundamental sub-processes.
1. Preparatory stages
2. Tanning
3. Crusting

21
 Ca(OH)2, Organic acid,
pH: 3.5 Tan bark
Na2S
Skins,
kips, Liming Drench Lay-away Jacking

Vegetable tanning
Spent liquor
hides (10 days) vat vat bench
Dye
steam
De-hairing

Scudding

Dyeing
Fresh tan liquor

drum
Bunch
Trimming machine Tanning Tanning Drying
vat vat loft
Table

mineral acid, Na S O Borax Oil

H2O 32 oC, (20- pH: 3.0
2 2 3

30 min)

Stuffing
Reduction

Emossing
Tryptic

drum
Pickling

setting
Soaking

drum
drum

drum

rolls
Enzyme
Pit batting Chrome tanning
(2 baths)
H2O HCl H2O

1st bath

Measuring
Rinsing

machine
NaCl

Beaming Splitting

bath
vat

2nd
Rinse vat machine

22
Na2Cr2O7
23 Leather Manufacturing Process
Leather manufacturing processes are subdivided into three fundamental sub-processes.

1. Preparatory stages
2. Tanning
Beam-house operations:
3. Crusting • The term beam-house derives from
an ancient practice, where the hides
are hung over a special curved log or
table, known as the beam for de-
hairing.
24 Leather Manufacturing Process
1. Preparatory Stages: 1. Selection, Skinning, Trimming, Fleshing & Weighing
At first select raw hides/skins and put aside the putrefied stock to treat separately

• skinning in performed in which skins are removed from the flesh of slaughtered/dead animals before the
body heat leaves the tissues.

• Trimming is done to remove the unwanted hairs from the surface of raw-hide.

• Fleshing is performed for the removal of un-removed animal flesh and fat particles from the internal
surface of raw-hides.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

25 Leather Manufacturing Process
2. Soaking, Curing and Re-soaking

• Initially hides are soaked in water in soaking pit for approximately 3-24 hours to remove dirt or other

contaminants from the skin.

• Then Curing (wet-salting (brine-curing) ) is applied by agitating the hides in salt water bath (soaking pit)

for about 3-24 hours

to prevent putrefaction of protein substances (collagen) from bacterial growth during the time lag
that might occur until its final processing.
to remove excess water from the hides and skins.

• Hides are again soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the

moisture so that the hides and skin can be further treated.

1- Preparatory Stage 2- Tanning 3- Crusting
26 Leather Manufacturing Process
2. Soaking, Curing and Re-soaking
Quality Control

 pH Check: pH: 9.0 – 10. If the pH goes over 11,it is called immunization of soaking. In this case hair gets
fixed in its root and cause problem in liming process.
 Soda Ash or Na2CO3- It increases the pH & works as bleaching agent. It helps to maintain pH.
 Bactericide- It prevents bacteria's growth in raw h/s
 Soaking Enzyme: It works as catalyst to return the wet condition completely in hides just like green
condition and also remove loose plunk which grows during mechanical agitation of soaking.
 It also assists to control the pH in optimum level.

1- Preparatory Stage 2- Tanning 3- Crusting

27 Leather Manufacturing Process
3. Liming
• Liming is the treatment of soaked hides with milk of lime (CaO, basic) with or without addition of
(reducing agent) Na2S to remove the hair from the grain surface of the hides.
• The weakening of hair is dependent upon the breakdown of disulphide link of the amino acid called
“Cystine”, which is the characteristic class of protein that gives strength to hair.
• Mixture used for liming break down this cystine linkage and they are ultimately ruptured, weakening
the keratin
• Liming includes the combination of chemical and physical action onto the skin surface.
• It is carried out in alkaline conditions of pH-(5.5-10).

1- Preparatory Stage 2- Tanning 3- Crusting

28 Leather Manufacturing Process
3. Liming The objectives of this operation are:
 Remove the hair from hides by breaking the sulphur-sulphur linkage of hair structure is by the action of alkali
and reducing agent.
 Swelling of fibrous structure by separating the fibers and fibrils from one another (Remove inter fibrillary
cementing materials) and opening up of whole structure.
 Emulsify fats and greases, (an extra step for de-greasing can be introduced before liming, if the leather
contain greases onto its surface. In this step Lipases are used to hydrolyze the fat particles embedded in the
skin).
 Remove the non collagenous substances
 Opening up more reactive site for tanning
 Hydrolysis the peptide bonds, amide side chains, guanine side chains
 Removal of dermatan sulfate
1- Preparatory Stage 2- Tanning 3- Crusting
29 Leather Manufacturing Process
1. Preparatory Stages:
Un-hairing and Scudding:
• Un-hairing agents used at this time are: Sodium sulphide, sodium hydroxide, sodium
hydrosulfite, calcium hydrosulfide, dimethyl amine and sodium sulfhydrate.
• The majority of hairs are then removed mechanically, initially with a machine and then by hand
using a dull knife, a process called Scudding.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

30 Leather Manufacturing Process
1. Preparatory Stages:
De-liming:
• This process is basically partial neutralization of skin which become
strongly alkaline during liming.

• It is usually done with ammonium salts.

• 12-14 hours process.

• Agitation of skins (can be done in revolving drums) speeds up the

process.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

31 Leather Manufacturing Process
1. Preparatory Stages:
Bating:
• The processed hides are then treated with enzymes to soften them, this process is called as
“Bating”.

• It gives them a desired degree of softness and elasticity.

• Enzymes (Proteases), Tyratic enzymes, amylases can be used for this reason that act upon the
Note:
skin proteins. • (The enzymes used in the “Bating Process” or any other
process should not damage or dissolve the collagen or
• 32 degree Celsius and for 20-30 minuteskeratin, but should be able to hydrolyze Casein, elastin,
time duration.
albumin and globulin-like proteins, as well as non-
structured proteins that are not essential for leather
manufacturing.
• It is especially important to hydrolyze the elastin if the
leather is to be limed, or treated with calcium hydroxide; if
not treated properly before liming, the elastin will harden
Preparatory Stage Tanning
during the process). Crusting
32 Leather Manufacturing Process
1. Preparatory Stages:
Rinsing vat and Pickling
• After bating step the material can once again washed by using clean water in rinsing vat.
• Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated with a mixture of common table salt and
sulphuric acid (in case of mineral tanning to be done).
• This is done to bring down the pH of collagen to a very low level so as to facilitate the penetration
of mineral tanning agent into the substance. This process is know as “Pickling”.
• The common salts (sodium chloride) penetrates the hide twice as fast as the acid.
• This process takes several days and is best done with the skins suspended in the acid bath and given
gentle agitation.
• A pH of 3.0-3.5 is maintained.
Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting
33 Leather Manufacturing Process
2. Tanning
• Tanning is a process of conversion of proteins of raw hide or skin into a stable material which
will not putrefy, to make it worth full for end applications.
• The basic difference between raw hides and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard
inflexible material that when re-wetted putrefy, while tanned material dries out to a flexible form
that does not become putrid when wetted-back.
• Two types of basic tanning processes used depending upon the end application process of
produced leather, it includes,
 Vegetable tanning
 Mineral Tanning (Chrome tanning)

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

34 Leather Manufacturing Process
Ve g e t a b l e Ta n n i n g :
• A vegetable tanning uses tannins (complex glucosides of catechol's and pyrogallols) extract, that
occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants.

• The tannin extract is mixed with water and placed in a rotating drum along with the animal skin.

• The rotation of the drum will evenly distribute the extract over the skin.

• These tannins react with the collagen fibers of the skin.

• PH is regulated by the use of sulphuric acid.

• Obtained hides absorbs large quantities of tannins, and the absorbed material fills up the holes and
stiffens the leather.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

35 Leather Manufacturing Process
Ve g e t a b l e Ta n n i n g :
• Produced leather is used for luggage and furniture.

• Tannins from chestnut, oak, hemlock, eucalyptus, quebracho, mangrove are used.

• Vegetable tanning process may take up to 2-4 months for completion.

• chestnut, oak, hemlock, eucalyptus, quebracho, mangrove

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

36 Leather Manufacturing Process
C h r o m e Ta n n i n g :
• After pickling, the hides are soaked in a solution of sodium dichromate, and then with sodium
thiosulfate in “Reduction drum” (which is achieved at relatively very low pH value around 2.8-3.2.

• Once the chromium enters the leather, which leaves the leather a pale blue color (due to chromium),
this product is commonly know as “Wet blue”.

• The level of chromium penetration into the hide surface can be checked in regular intervals by
cutting the skin from its cross-sectional area.

• Next to the reduction drum, hides are treated in settling drum with borax to set the chrome salt onto
the fibers, this process is called as “Basification” (because for the settling of chrome, frequent
increase in pH is desired, that helps the formation of chromium complexes).
Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting
37 Leather Manufacturing Process
C h r o m e Ta n n i n g :
• Chrome tanning process requires only 1-3 weeks.

• The practical measure of degree of chrome tannage is that of thermal stability, if the leather can
withstand at temperature of 100 degree Celsius, under wet conditions, it is considered to be
satisfactory tanned.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

38 Leather Manufacturing Process
Crusting
• Crusting is when the hide/skin is thinned, retanned and lubricated. Often a coloring operation is
included in the crusting sub-process. 
Shaving:
• A special machine is used to shave the tanned leather to a uniform thickness.
Drying:
• Drying is an important process in which moisture is being removed from the leather.
• Dry leathers are know as “crust stock” and are sorted in preparation of dyeing and finishing.
• During drying process, processed leather is stretched and hanged to facilitate the drying process.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

39 Leather Manufacturing Process
Dyeing:
• Dyeing involves a number of processes in which first the dry “crust stock” is wetted back by soaking
with a suitable soaking agent.
• Then they are given treatment chemically for the type of dye to be used.
• This whole process may take up to several hours.
• Dyeing with proper attention to evenness, saturation, light-fastness, color matching etc, is a very
skilled operation.
• In case of chrome tanned leathers the most effective sites are the chromium nuclei, and these form the
main points for fixation of dye-stuffs.
• In United States, a common finishing technique used for the spray application is by the use of the
Polyurethene and /or acrylic.
• But because of pollution concerns, most leather finishing is done by the use of aqueous dispersions,
Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting
40 Leather Manufacturing Process
Dyeing: F L O W C O AT E R :
• Hides are allowed to flow on a conveyer belt through the spray of solution of coating material, in
this way obtained hides are coated.
• During the first coat, the material penetrates the leather surface completely.(base coat)
• Then the coated leather is again dried to fix the first coating.
• After drying the coated leather is again allowed to pass through flow coater, this time for a middle
coat that include dye.
• Then it is dried as before and put for a third coat. This top coat is clear, and dries hard, shinny and
waterproof.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

41 Leather Manufacturing Process
Stuffing Drum: (60 degree Celsius)
• Traditionally a variety of fats and oils are used in the lubrication of leather.

• Fat-liquoring is a process in which tanned leathers are treated with reactive oils, which attach
themselves to the fibrous structures, and lubricate them, so that they can move readily in relation to
one another, producing soft leather.
Splitting and Skiving machines:
• Splitting machines accurately split a material into a thinner dimensions and can split a thick material into
many thinner pieces.
• These machines are also often used by automotive, rubber and plastic industries, predominantly in their
laboratories and also in their production operations.
• Skiving machines removes the excess material, usually along the degree or the edges of a part.
• Skiving is often used in the leather goods, automotive and furniture industries to bevel the edges of parts that
Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting
42 Leather Manufacturing Process
Jacking Bench:
• The coated and dry leather product is then allowed to enter into the jacking bench.

• It is actually a machine equipped with a solid cylindrical piece of glass, probably 2 inches in diameter
and 6 inches long.

• Then pressure applied by the machine onto the leather surface can be controlled, and the surface of
leather can be glazed to the desired degree.

• By this operation, workers can bring up the good color tones, and a high gloss finish at different areas
of skin.

• The rubbing of the glass across the finish develops high temperatures, which promotes hardening of
the finish and at the same time quick smoothing action that results in high gloss finish.
Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting
43 Leather Manufacturing Process
Jacking Bench:

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

44 Leather Manufacturing Process
Drying loft and Embossing Rolls:
• Finally heating the obtained leather for drying and fixing the coated material by maintaining
high temperatures, by the use of steam.

• Embossing rolls are often used to create images or designs

Measuring Machines:

• Quality of leather is now measured using light scanners fitted to a conveyer belt in a finishing
department.

Preparatory Stage Tanning Crusting

 Leather manufacturing process (Extra details)
For personal study

• The main mineral tanning material is trivalent chromium sulphate. It is synthesized

in the following step:

Basic Building block for the Tanning Reaction, formation of OXO compounds, with Cr-O-
Cr bonds.

Final tanned product obtained at the end of tanning process.

45
Leather manufacturing process

46
 Skins,
kips, hides

Trimming
Table

Soaking
Pit

Beaming

47
 Ca(OH)2, Organic acid,
pH: 3.5 Tan bark
Na2S
Skins,
kips, Liming Drench Lay-away Jacking

Vegetable tanning
Spent liquor
hides (10 days) vat vat bench
Dye
steam
De-hairing

Scudding

Dyeing
Fresh tan liquor

drum
Bunch
Trimming machine Tanning Tanning Drying
vat vat loft
Table

mineral acid, Na S O Borax Oil

H2O 32 oC, (20- pH: 3.0
2 2 3

30 min)

Stuffing
Reduction

Emossing
Tryptic

drum
Pickling

setting
Soaking

drum
drum

drum

rolls
Enzyme
Pit batting Chrome tanning
(2 baths)
H2O HCl H2O

1st bath

Measuring
Rinsing

machine
NaCl

Beaming Splitting

bath
vat

2nd
Rinse vat machine

48
Na2Cr2O7
49
50
51
52
53
54
 Skins,
kips, hides

Trimming
Table

Soaking
Pit

Beaming

55
 USES
• Clothing (e.g: shoes, hats, jackets,
skirts, trousers and belts)
• Bookbinding
• Leather wallpaper
• Furniture covering

56
57
A l d e h y d e Ta n n i n g
• The skins are prepared to a pH 4 or 5 and drummed in 3% formalin with the least possible amount
of water. A temperature of 30 oC is beneficial. After runtime of 4-5 hours, they are left in the closed
drum overnight and then 'ashed up' (1-1.5 % soda ash, 50-100% water) until pH is not less than 8.
At this pH formaldehyde rapidly fixes to the skins. At higher pHs over tannage of grain side (with no
penetration) occurs. If production of grain leather is intended various(modified) alkali systems are
recomended (use of Mg salts) to avoid this danger. 
The amount of aldehyde being attached to the hide is small, from 0.2 to 2 %. Part of this may
remain unbound. Aldehydes combine with the basic amino group of skin protein. In alkali some
condensation(aldol) to larger molecules give fullness to the leather. 
Aldehyde tanned leathers have reduced ability to fix acid (basic groups have reacted).Similarly they
can reduce fixation of some vegetable tans and dyes. Aldehyde tannage reduces isoelectric point of
T y p e hides,
s o f Tsoa nthat
n i nat
g any pH it has a lower cationic charge than raw skin, and mineral tanned leather.
Leather industries in pakistan

58