Computer Networks - Week - 11

Tishk International University
Faculty of Engineering Safwan Mawlood

Computer Engineering Department
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKS &
DATA COMMUNICATION
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Objectives
 Provides a general idea about data communication, networking, protocols and standards.
Topic Title Topic Objective

Binary Number System Calculate numbers between decimal and binary systems.
Networks Affect our Lives Explain how networks affect our daily lives.
Network Components Explain how host and network devices are used.
Common Types of Networks Compare the characteristics of common types of networks.
Internet Connections Explain how LANs and WANs interconnect to the internet.
Purpose of the Physical Layer Describe the purpose and functions of the physical layer in the network.
Physical Layer Characteristics Describe characteristics of the physical layer.
Purpose of the Data Link Layer Describe the purpose and function of the data link layer in preparing communication for
transmission on specific media.
Topologies Compare the characteristics of media access control methods on WAN and LAN topologies.
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Number Systems
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Binary Number System
Binary and IPv4 Addresses
• Binary numbering system consists of 1s and 0s, called bits
• Decimal numbering system consists of digits 0 through 9
• Hosts, servers, and network equipment using binary addressing to identify each other.
• Each address is made up of a string of 32 bits, divided into four sections called octets.
• Each octet contains 8 bits (or 1 byte) separated by a dot.
• For ease of use by people, this dotted notation is converted to dotted decimal.
Binary Positional Notation
• Positional notation means that a digit represents different values depending on the
“position” the digit occupies in the sequence of numbers.
• The decimal positional notation system operates as shown in the tables below.
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones

Radix 10 10 10 10
Positional Value 1000 100 10 1
Position in 3 2 1 0 Decimal Number (1234) 1 2 3 4
Number
Calculate (103) (102) (101) (100) Calculate 1 x 1000 2 x 100 3 x 10 4x1
Position Value 1000 100 10 1 Add them up… 1000 + 200 + 30 +4
Result 1,234
Binary Positional Notation (Cont.)
The binary positional notation system operates as shown in the tables below.
Radix 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Position in Number 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Calculate (27) (26) (25) (24) (23) (22) (21) (20)
Position Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Positional Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary Number (11000000) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Calculate 1x128 1x64 0x32 0x16 0x8 0x4 0x2 0x1
Add Them Up… 128 + 64 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0
Result 192
Convert Binary to Decimal
Convert 11000000.10101000.00001011.00001010 to decimal.
Positional Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary Number (11000000) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Add Them Up… 128 + 64 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0

192
Binary Number (10101000) 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
168
Add Them Up… 128 +0 + 32 +0 +8 +0 +0 +0
Binary Number (00001011) 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

192.168.11.10
11
Add Them Up… 0 +0 +0 +0 +8 +0 +2 +1
Binary Number (00001010) 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Calculate 0x128 0x64 0x32 0x16 1x8 0x4 1x2 0x1 10

Add Them Up… 0 +0 +0 +0 +8 +0 +2 +0
Decimal to Binary Conversion Example
• Convert decimal 168 to binary
Is 168 > 128?
- Yes, enter 1 in 128 position and subtract 128 (168-128=40)
Is 40 > 64?
- No, enter 0 in 64 position and move on
Is 40 > 32?
- Yes, enter 1 in 32 position and subtract 32 (40-32=8)
Is 8 > 16?
- No, enter 0 in 16 position and move on
Is 8 > 8?
- Equal. Enter 1 in 8 position and subtract 8 (8-8=0)
No values left. Enter 0 in remaining binary positions
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
Decimal 168 is written as 10101000 in binary
IPv4 Addresses
• Routers and computers only understand binary, while humans work in
decimal. It is important for you to gain a thorough understanding of these
two numbering systems and how they are used in networking.
Hexadecimal Number System
Hexadecimal and IPv6 Addresses
• To understand IPv6 addresses,
you must be able to convert
hexadecimal to decimal and
vice versa.
• Hexadecimal is a base sixteen
numbering system, using the
digits 0 through 9 and letters A
to F.
• It is easier to express a value
as a single hexadecimal digit
than as four binary bit.
• Hexadecimal is used to
represent IPv6 addresses and
MAC addresses.
Hexadecimal and IPv6 Addresses (Cont.)
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in
length. Every 4 bits is
represented by a single
hexadecimal digit. That makes
the IPv6 address a total of 32
hexadecimal values.
• The figure shows the preferred
method of writing out an IPv6
address, with each X
representing four hexadecimal
values.
• Each four hexadecimal
character group is referred to
as a hextet.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversions
Follow the steps listed to convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal values:

• Convert the decimal number to 8-bit binary strings.
• Divide the binary strings in groups of four starting from the rightmost position.
• Convert each four binary numbers into their equivalent hexadecimal digit.
For example, 168 converted into hex using the three-step process.
• 168 in binary is 10101000.
• 10101000 in two groups of four binary digits is 1010 and 1000.
• 1010 is hex A and 1000 is hex 8, so 168 is A8 in hexadecimal.
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversions
Follow the steps listed to convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal values:

• Convert the hexadecimal number to 4-bit binary strings.
• Create 8-bit binary grouping starting from the rightmost position.
• Convert each 8-bit binary grouping into their equivalent decimal digit.
For example, D2 converted into decimal using the three-step process:

• D2 in 4-bit binary strings is 1101 and 0010.
• 1101 and 0010 is 11010010 in an 8-bit grouping.
• 11010010 in binary is equivalent to 210 in decimal, so D2 is 210 is decimal
Number system summary
• Binary is a base two numbering system that consists of the numbers 0 and 1, called
bits.
• Decimal is a base ten numbering system that consists of the numbers 0 through 9.
• Binary is what hosts, servers, and networking equipment uses to identify each other.
• Hexadecimal is a base sixteen numbering system that consists of the numbers 0
through 9 and the letters A to F.
• Hexadecimal is used to represent IPv6 addresses and MAC addresses.
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, and every 4 bits is represented by a hexadecimal
digit for a total of 32 hexadecimal digits.
• To convert hexadecimal to decimal, you must first convert the hexadecimal to
binary, then convert the binary to decimal.
• To convert decimal to hexadecimal, you must first convert the decimal to binary and
then the binary to hexadecimal.
Networks
Affect Our
Lives
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco

Confidential 15
Networking Today
Networks Connect Us
•Communication is almost as
important to us as our reliance on air,
water, food, and shelter. In today’s
world, through the use of networks, we
are connected like never before.
Networking Today
No Boundaries
• World without boundaries
• Global communities
• Human network
Network
Components

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Data
• The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form is agreed upon
by the parties creating and using the data
Data Communications
Data Representation
Text: In data communications, text is
represented as a bit pattern, a sequence
of bits (Os or 1s) Different sets of bit Numbers : In data communications, text
patterns have been designed to is represented as a bit pattern, a
represent text symbols. Each set is sequence of bits (Os or 1s)
called a code, and the process of
representing symbols is called coding.
Images :mages are also represented by

bit patterns. In its simplest form, an Audio : Audio refers to the recording or
image is composed of a matrix of pixels broadcasting of sound or music. Audio
(picture elements), where each pixel is a is by nature different from text, numbers,
small dot. The size of the image or images. It is continuous, not discrete
depends on the resolution.
Video : Video refers to the recording or

broadcasting of a picture or movie.
Video can either be produced as a
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Data Communication
 Data Communication is the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable,
For data communications to occur, the
communication devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a
combination of hardware( Physical
equipment) and software(programs).
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Data Communications System characteristics
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the

correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data
accurately.
3. Timelines: The system must deliver data in a
timely manner
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet
arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio or video packets.
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Data Communication System Components
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
television, and so on.
4. -Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio
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waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
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Network Components
Host Roles
Every computer on a network is
called a host or end device.
Servers are computers that provide
information to end devices:
• email servers
• web servers
Server Description
• file server
Type
Clients are computers that send Email server runs email server software.
requests to the servers to retrieve Email
Clients use client software to access email.
information:
• web page from a web server Web Web server runs web server software.
 email from an email server Clients use browser software to access web pages.
File File server stores corporate and user files.

The client devices access these files.
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Network Type
1. Server Based Network ( Client-Server) consist of a group of computers
(Client) that request and receive network services from specialized computer
called a server
 Server: is a computer that designed specially with specific hardware and
software to provide services for clients.
 Client: Is a computer that request access thus resources and services from the
server.
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Network Components
Peer-to-Peer
In this type of network all the computers basically operate equally, the computer share resources such as file and printers but not special server
exist each peer is a client and a server at the same time. This type of network design is only recommended for very small networks.
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up No centralized administration
Less complex Not as secure
Lower cost Not scalable
Used for simple tasks: transferring files and Slower performance

sharing printers
Characteristics of peer- to- peer network:
 No computer has more authority than another

 Every computer is a general purpose computer

Network Components
End Devices
An end device is where a message originates from or where it is received. Data originates with an end
device, flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.
Network Components
Intermediary Network Devices
An intermediary device interconnects end devices. Examples include switches, wireless
access points, routers, and firewalls.
Management of data as it flows through a network is also the role of an intermediary
device, including:
 Regenerate and retransmit data signals.
 Maintain information about what pathways exist in the network.
 Notify other devices of errors and communication failures.
Network Components
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Network Media
 Communication across a network is carried on a medium.
The medium provides the channel over which the message travels
from source to destination.
 These media are:
 Different types of network media have different features and benefits.

The distance the media can successfully carry a signal.
The environment in which the media is to be installed.
Safwan Mawlood The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted.
The cost of the media and installation
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Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

 1-Simplex transmission is one-way transmission, such as that with radios and TVs.
2- Half-duplex transmission is two-way transmission, but you can transmit in only one
direction at a time. A half-duplex communication link is similar to a walkie-talkie link;
only one computer can transmit at a time.
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Data Flow Continuous Safwan Mawlood
 full-duplex transmission, it can transmit in both directions simultaneously, with no

turnaround time.
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Network
Representations
and Topologies

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Network Representations and Topologies
Network Representations
Network diagrams, often called topology

diagrams, use symbols to represent
devices within the network.
Important terms to know include:
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Physical Port
 Interface
Note: Often, the terms port and

interface are used interchangeably
Network Representations and Topologies
Topology Diagrams
Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices,
Physical topology diagrams illustrate the ports, and the addressing scheme of the
physical location of intermediary devices and
cable installation. network.
Physical Structure
Types of Connection
 Point-to-Point :
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link

between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices.
 Multipoint :
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one

in which more than two specific devices share a single
link.

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Physical Topology
Mesh topology:
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other devices
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Advantages of Mesh Topology
 First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
 Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
 Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line,
only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
 Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to
avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise
location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.

 The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports
required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
 Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate.
 Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.
For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a
backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.

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Physical Topology
Star topology:
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
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Advantages vs Disadvantages
1. less expensive than mesh topology
2. each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others
3. expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
4. easy to install and reconfigure
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the
hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

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Physical Topology
Bus topology:
 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus
cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
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Bus topology:
 Advantages of a bus topology include
1. ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then
2. In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies
 Disadvantages
1. difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation
2. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
3. Limited number of devices Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
4. fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission

Physical Topology
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along

Advantages vs Disadvantages
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors
(either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections
 The only constraints are media and traffic consider- ations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
In addition, fault isolation is sim- plified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.

Common
Types of
Networks

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Common Types of Networks
Networks of Many Sizes
• Small Home Networks – connect a few

computers to each other and the Internet
• Small Office/Home Office – enables
computer within a home or remote office
to connect to a corporate network
Small Home SOHO
• Medium to Large Networks – many
locations with hundreds or thousands of
interconnected computers
• World Wide Networks – connects hundreds
of millions of computers world-wide – such
as the internet
Medium/Large World Wide

LANs and WANs
Network infrastructures vary greatly in
terms of:
• Size of the area covered
• Number of users connected
• Number and types of services
available
• Area of responsibility
Two most common types of networks:

• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN).
LANs and WANs (cont.)
A LAN is a network infrastructure that spans a A WAN is a network infrastructure that
small geographical area. spans a wide geographical area.
LAN WAN
Interconnect end devices in a limited area. Interconnect LANs over wide geographical areas.
Administered by a single organization or Typically administered by one or more service
individual. providers.
Provide high-speed bandwidth to internal Typically provide slower speed links between LANs.
devices.
LAN Advantages:
 Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This is cheaper than buying
a printer for every workstation.
 Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations
very easily.
 One copy of each application package such as a word processor, spreadsheet etc.
can be loaded onto the file and shared by all users.
 Cost. Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be costly.
Networkable versions are available at considerable savings.
 Shared programs on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program on one
single file server, instead of upgrading individual workstations.
 Speed. Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus saving
time, while maintaining the integrity of the file.

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LAN Disadvantages:
 If server develops a fault, users may not be able to run the application programs.
 A fault in the network can cause the user to lose the data.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers, novices or industrial
espionage.
 Decisions on resource planning tend to become centralized.
 Networks that have grown with a little thought can be inefficient in the long term.
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LAN characteristics : Safwan Mawlood
 Data transfer at high speed

 They exists in limited time
 There technology is less expensive
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wide area network (WAN)
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line
that connects a home computer to the Internet.

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 They exists in unlimited area

 They are more susceptible to errors
 They interconnect multiple LANs
 Their technology is expensive
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Intranets, and Extranets
An intranet is a private collection of LANs and WANs
internal to an organization that is meant to be accessible
only to the organizations members or others with
authorization.
An organization might use an extranet to provide secure
access to their network for individuals who work for a
different organization that need access to their data on
their network.

 Intranet is a term often used to refer to a private connection of LANs and WANs that belongs
to an organization. An intranet is designed to be accessible only by the organization's members,
employees, or others with authorization.
 An organization may use an extranet to provide secure and safe access to individuals who work
for a different organization but require access to the organization’s data. Here are some
examples of extranets:
• A company that is providing access to outside suppliers and contractors
• A hospital that is providing a booking system to doctors so they can make appointments for
their patients
• A local office of education that is providing budget and personnel information to the schools in
its district

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Network Criteria
 Performance
Performance can be measured by so many ways, including transit time and response
time.
 Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of

failure , the time it takes a link to recover from a failure
 Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
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Data Carrying Capacity Safwan Mawlood
Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. Data transfer can
be measured in 3 ways:
- Bandwidth - Digital bandwidth measures the amount of information that can flow
from one place to another in a given amount of time. (Ideal)
- Throughput - Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media
over a given period of time. (Actual)
- Goodput - It is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time,
and is therefore the measure that is of most interest to network users
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Throughput Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 Km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4*100000000 m/s in cable.
Solution :
We can calculate the propagation time as
Propagation time = (12000*1000)/240000000 =50 ms

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PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. protocol defines what
is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
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The elements of a protocol
1- Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data, it is the arrangement of data in
particular order.
2- Semantics:
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. And indicates the interpretation
of each section in addition what action is to be taken based on that interpretation
3- Timing : Safwan Mawlood
Timing refers to two characteristics : when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.
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The Internet
The internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected
LANs and WANs.
• LANs are connected to each other using WANs.
• WANs may use copper wires, fiber optic cables, and
wireless transmissions.
The internet is not owned by any individual or group. The
following groups were developed to help maintain
structure on the internet:
 ICANN- Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers, a California non-profit corporation.
 IANA - Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (a
traditional name, used here to refer to the technical
team making and publishing the assignments of
Internet protocol technical parameters). The IANA
technical team is now part of ICANN.
 IETF - the Internet Engineering Task Force, the
unincorporated association operating under such
name that creates Internet Standards and related
documents.
Internet
Connections

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Internet Connections
Internet Access Technologies
There are many ways to connect users
and organizations to the internet:
 Popular services for home users
and small offices include
broadband cable, broadband digital
subscriber line (DSL), wireless
WANs, and mobile services.
 Organizations need faster
connections to support IP phones,
video conferencing and data center
storage.
 Business-class interconnections are
usually provided by service
providers (SP) and may include:
business DSL, leased lines, and
Metro Ethernet.
Home and Small Office Internet Connections
Connecti Description
on
Cable high bandwidth, always on,
internet offered by cable
television service providers.
DSL high bandwidth, always on,
internet connection that
runs over a telephone line.
Cellular uses a cell phone network
to connect to the internet.
Satellite major benefit to rural areas
without Internet Service
Providers.
Businesses Internet Connections
Corporate business connections may Type of Description
require: Connecti
 higher bandwidth on
 dedicated connections
 managed services Dedicate These are reserved circuits
d Leased within the service provider’s
Line network that connect
distant offices with private
voice and/or data
networking.
Ethernet This extends LAN access
WAN technology into the WAN.
DSL Business DSL is available in
various formats including
The Converging Network
Before converged networks, an

organization would have been separately
cabled for telephone, video, and data.
Each of these networks would use
different technologies to carry the signal.
Each of these technologies would use a
different set of rules and standards.
The Converging Network (Cont.)
Converged data networks carry multiple
services on one link including:
• data
• voice
• video
Converged networks can deliver data,
voice, and video over the same network
infrastructure. The network
infrastructure uses the same set of rules
and standards.
Reliable
Networks

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Reliable Network
Network Architecture
Network Architecture refers to the

technologies that support the infrastructure
that moves data across the network.
There are four basic characteristics that the
underlying architectures need to address to
meet user expectations:
• Fault Tolerance
• Scalability
• Quality of Service (QoS)
• Security
Reliable Network
Fault Tolerance
A fault tolerant network limits the impact of a

failure by limiting the number of affected
devices. Multiple paths are required for fault
tolerance.
Reliable networks provide redundancy by
implementing a packet switched network:
• Packet switching splits traffic into
packets that are routed over a network.
• Each packet could theoretically take a
different path to the destination.
This is not possible with circuit-switched
networks which establish dedicated circuits.
Reliable Network
Scalability
A scalable network can expand

quickly and easily to support new
users and applications without
impacting the performance of
services to existing users.
Network designers follow
accepted standards and
protocols in order to make the
networks scalable.
Reliable Network
Quality of Service
Voice and live video transmissions require
higher expectations for those services being
delivered.
Have you ever watched a live video with
constant breaks and pauses? This is caused
when there is a higher demand for
bandwidth than available – and QoS isn’t
configured.
• Quality of Service (QoS) is the primary
mechanism used to ensure reliable
delivery of content for all users.
• With a QoS policy in place, the router can
more easily manage the flow of data and
voice traffic.
There are two main types of network
Reliable Network
security that must be addressed:
Network Security • Network infrastructure security
• Physical security of network
devices
• Preventing unauthorized access to
the devices
• Information Security
• Protection of the information or
data transmitted over the network
Three goals of network security:

 Confidentiality – only intended recipients can
read the data
 Integrity – assurance that the data has not be
altered with during transmission
 Availability – assurance of timely and reliable
access to data for authorized users
Network
Trends

Confidential 81
Network Trends
Recent Trends
The role of the network must adjust and
continually transform in order to be able
to keep up with new technologies and
end user devices as they constantly
come to the market.
Several new networking trends that
effect organizations and consumers:
• Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
• Online collaboration
• Video communications
• Cloud computing
Network Trends Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) allows
Bring Your Own Device users to use their own devices giving
them more opportunities and greater
flexibility.
BYOD allows end users to have the
freedom to use personal tools to access
information and communicate using
their:
 Laptops
 Netbooks
 Tablets
 Smartphones
 E-readers
BYOD means any device, with any

ownership, used anywhere.
Network Trends
Online Collaboration
 Collaborate and work with others over
the network on joint projects.
 Collaboration tools including Cisco
WebEx (shown in the figure) gives
users a way to instantly connect and
interact.
 Collaboration is a very high priority for
businesses and in education.
 Cisco Webex Teams is a
multifunctional collaboration tool.
• send instant messages
• post images
• post videos and links
Network Trends
Video Communication
• Video calls are made to anyone, regardless of where they are located.
• Video conferencing is a powerful tool for communicating with others.
• Video is becoming a critical requirement for effective collaboration.
• Cisco TelePresence powers is one way of working where everyone,
everywhere.
Network Trends
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing allows us to store personal files or backup our data on servers over the internet.
 Applications can also be accessed using the Cloud.
 Allows businesses to deliver to any device anywhere in the world.
Cloud computing is made possible by data centers.

 Smaller companies that can’t afford their own data centers, lease server and storage services from larger data center
organizations in the Cloud.
Network Trends
Cloud Computing (Cont.)
Four types of Clouds:
• Public Clouds
• Available to the general public through a pay-per-use model or for free.
• Private Clouds
• Intended for a specific organization or entity such as the government.
• Hybrid Clouds
• Made up of two or more Cloud types – for example, part custom and part public.
• Each part remains a distinctive object but both are connected using the same
architecture.
• Custom Clouds
• Built to meet the needs of a specific industry, such as healthcare or media.
• Can be private or public.
Network Trends
Technology Trends in the Home
• Smart home technology is a
growing trend that allows
technology to be integrated into
every-day appliances which allows
them to interconnect with other
devices.
• Ovens might know what time to
cook a meal for you by
communicating with your calendar
on what time you are scheduled to
be home.
• Smart home technology is
currently being developed for all
rooms within a house.
Network Trends
Powerline Networking
 Powerline networking can allow

devices to connect to a LAN
where data network cables or
wireless communications are
not a viable option.
 Using a standard powerline
adapter, devices can connect
to the LAN wherever there is an
electrical outlet by sending
data on certain frequencies.
 Powerline networking is
especially useful when wireless
access points cannot reach all
the devices in the home.
Network Trends
Wireless Broadband
In addition to DSL and cable, wireless is another

option used to connect homes and small
businesses to the internet.
• More commonly found in rural environments,
a Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISP) is
an ISP that connects subscribers to
designated access points or hotspots.
• Wireless broadband is another solution for the
home and small businesses.
• Uses the same cellular technology used
by a smart phone.
• An antenna is installed outside the
house providing wireless or wired
connectivity for devices in the home.
Network
Security

Confidential 91
Network Security
Security Threats
 Network security is an integral

part of networking regardless of
the size of the network.
 The network security that is
implemented must take into
account the environment while
securing the data, but still
allowing for quality of service that
is expected of the network.
 Securing a network involves many
protocols, technologies, devices,
tools, and techniques in order to
secure data and mitigate threats.
 Threat vectors might be external
or internal.
Network Security
Security Threats (Cont.)
External Threats:
 Viruses, worms, and Trojan
horses
 Spyware and adware
 Zero-day attacks
 Threat Actor attacks
 Denial of service attacks
 Data interception and theft
 Identity theft
Internal Threats:
 lost or stolen devices
 accidental misuse by
employees
 malicious employees
Network Security
Security Solutions
Security must be implemented in multiple

layers using more than one security solution.
Network security components for home or
small office network:
 Antivirus and antispyware software
should be installed on end devices.
 Firewall filtering used to block
unauthorized access to the network.
Network Security
Security Solutions (Cont.)
Larger networks have additional security

requirements:
 Dedicated firewall system
 Access control lists (ACL)
 Intrusion prevention systems (IPS)
 Virtual private networks (VPN)
The study of network security starts with a clear
understanding of the underlying switching and
routing infrastructure.
Module
Practice and
Quiz
Confidential 96
Module Practice and Quiz
What did I learn in this module?
 Through the use of networks, we are connected like never before.
 All computers that are connected to a network and participate directly in network
communication are classified as hosts.
 Diagrams of networks often use symbols to represent the different devices and
connections that make up a network.
 A diagram provides an easy way to understand how devices connect in a large
network.
 The two types of network infrastructures are Local Area Networks (LANs), and Wide
Area Networks (WANs).
 SOHO internet connections include cable, DSL, Cellular, Satellite, and Dial-up
telephone.
 Business internet connections include Dedicated Leased Line, Metro Ethernet,
Business DSL, and Satellite.
Module Practice and Quiz
What did I learn in this module? (Cont.)
 Network architecture refers to the technologies that support the infrastructure and the
programmed services and rules, or protocols, that move data across the network.
 There are four basic characteristics of network architecture: Fault Tolerance, Scalability,
Quality of Service (QoS), and Security.
 Recent networking trends that affect organizations and consumers: Bring Your Own
Device (BYOD), online collaboration, video communications, and cloud computing.
 There are several common external and internal threats to networks.
 Larger networks and corporate networks use antivirus, antispyware, and firewall filtering,
but they also have other security requirements: Dedicated firewall systems, Access
control lists (ACL), Intrusion prevention systems (IPS), and Virtual private networks (VPN)
 The Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) certification demonstrates your
knowledge of foundational technologies.
Data
Communication

Data Communications
Data
The word data refers to information presented in

whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data .
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Data Communications
Data Representation
 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or
1s) Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.
 Numbers : In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits
(Os or 1s)
 Images :mages are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of
the image depends on the resolution.
 Audio : Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete
 Video : Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either
be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion
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Data Communication
 Data Communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable, For data communications to occur, the
communication devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware( Physical equipment) and software(programs).
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Data Communications System characteristics
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the

correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data
accurately.
3. Timelines: The system must deliver data in a
timely manner
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet
arrival time.It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio or video packets.
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Data Communication System Components
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Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

 1-Simplex transmission is one-way transmission, such as that with radios and TVs.
2- Half-duplex transmission is two-way transmission, but you can transmit in only one
direction at a time. A half-duplex communication link is similar to a walkie-talkie link;
only one computer can transmit at a time.
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Data Flow Continuous Safwan Mawlood
 full-duplex transmission, it can transmit in both directions simultaneously, with no

turnaround time.
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Networks and
Network Components

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Network
• A network is a set of devices (often

referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the
network.

Networking Today
No Boundaries
• World without boundaries
• Global communities
• Human network

Physical Structure
Types of Connection
 Point-to-Point :
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link

between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices.
 Multipoint :
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one

in which more than two specific devices share a single
link.

Network Components
Host Roles
Every computer on a network is called a host or end
device.
Servers are computers that provide information to end

devices: Server Description
• email servers Type
• web servers
Email Email server runs email server software.
• file server
Clients use client software to access
Clients are computers that send requests to the servers email.
to retrieve information:
Web Web server runs web server software.
• web page from a web server
Clients use browser software to access
 email from an email server
web pages.
File File server stores corporate and user files.

The client devices access these files.
Network Components
End Devices
An end device is where a message originates from or where it is received.
Data originates with an end device, flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.

Network Components
Intermediary Network Devices
An intermediary device interconnects end devices. Examples include switches, wireless
access points, routers, and firewalls.
Management of data as it flows through a network is also the role of an intermediary
device, including:
1. Regenerate and retransmit data signals.
2. Maintain information about what pathways exist in the network.
3. Notify other devices of errors and communication failures.

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Network Type
1. Server Based Network ( Client-Server) consist of a group of computers
(Client) that request and receive network services from specialized computer
called a server
 Server: is a computer that designed specially with specific hardware and
software to provide services for clients.
 Client: Is a computer that request access thus resources and services from the
server.
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Network Type Cont….
2. Peer-to-Peer network: In this type of network all the computers basically operate
equally, the computer share resources such as file and printers but not special
server exist each peer is a client and a server at the same time.

Characteristics of peer- to- peer network:
 No computer has more authority than another

 Every computer is a general purpose computer

Peer-to-Peer network
It is possible to have a device be a client and a server in a Peer-to-Peer Network. This type of network design is
only recommended for very small networks.
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up No centralized administration
Less complex Not as secure
Lower cost Not scalable
Used for simple tasks: transferring files and Slower performance

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Network Components
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Network Media
 Communication across a network is carried on a medium.
The medium provides the channel over which the message travels
from source to destination.
 These media are:
 Different types of network media have different features and benefits.

The distance the media can successfully carry a signal.
The environment in which the media is to be installed.
Safwan Mawlood The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted.
The cost of the media and installation
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Network Criteria
 Performance
Performance can be measured by so many ways, including transit time and response
time.
 Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of

failure , the time it takes a link to recover from a failure
 Security
Network security issues

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Physical Topology
Mesh topology:
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other devices
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Physical Topology
Star topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller
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Physical Topology
Bus topology:
Multi point, one long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
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Physical Topology
Ring Topology
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device.

Model of Network computing
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1. Centralized computing
All processing takes place in the central computer of (Main Frame)
The terminal is connected to the central computer and functions as I/O device .
2. Distributed Computing
Multiple computer is capable of operating independently
The task is completed locally on various computers
The network enables the computers to exchange data and services but don’t provide
processing assistance.
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Network Classification:
Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:
The size of the area covered
The number of users connected
The number and types of services available

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1. Local Area Network (LAN): Is a group of computers and devices interconnected

within a single geographical area, such as a single business, campus or region
• Spans across small geographical area

• Interconnects end devices
• Administrated by a single organization
• Provide high speed bandwidth to internal devices
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LAN Advantages:
 Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This is cheaper than buying
a printer for every workstation.
 Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations
very easily.
 One copy of each application package such as a word processor, spreadsheet etc.
can be loaded onto the file and shared by all users.
 Cost. Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be costly.
Networkable versions are available at considerable savings.
 Shared programs on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program on one
single file server, instead of upgrading individual workstations.
 Speed. Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus saving
time, while maintaining the integrity of the file.

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LAN Disadvantages:
 If server develops a fault, users may not be able to run the application programs.
 A fault in the network can cause the user to lose the data.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers, novices or industrial
espionage.
 Decisions on resource planning tend to become centralized.
 Networks that have grown with a little thought can be inefficient in the long term.
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LAN characteristics : Safwan Mawlood
 Data transfer at high speed

 They exists in limited time
 There technology is less expensive
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Wide Area Network(WAN): Safwan Mawlood
 A WAN is interconnected LANs. It may be located within a state or

country or it may be interconnected around the world
• Interconnects LAN
• Administrated by multiple service providers
• Provide slower speed links between LANS
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Characteristics of WAN : Safwan Mawlood
 They exists in unlimited area

 They are more susceptible to errors
 They interconnect multiple LANs
 Their technology is expensive
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Internet
 The internet is a worldwide

collection of interconnected
networks (internetworks, or
internet for short).

Personal Area Network(PAN) Safwan Mawlood
 A Personal Area Network or simply PAN, is smallest network which is very personal to a
user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN
has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard
and mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes for
example
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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and
WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for
customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have
endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
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A storage area network (SAN)
 A storage area network (SAN) is a type of local area network (LAN) designed
to handle large data transfers. A SAN typically supports data storage, retrieval and
replication on business networks using high-end servers, multiple disk arrays
and Fiber channel interconnection technology.
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Intranets, and Extranets
 Intranets and Extranets

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PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. protocol defines what
is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
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The elements of a protocol
1- Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data, it is the arrangement of data in
particular order.
2- Semantics:
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. And indicates the interpretation
of each section in addition what action is to be taken based on that interpretation
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Timing refers to two characteristics : when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent.
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Data Carrying Capacity Safwan Mawlood
Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. Data transfer can
be measured in 3 ways:
- Bandwidth - Digital bandwidth measures the amount of information that can flow
from one place to another in a given amount of time. (Ideal)
- Throughput - Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media
over a given period of time. (Actual)
- Goodput - It is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time,
and is therefore the measure that is of most interest to network users
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Throughput Example

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 Km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4*100000000 m/s in cable.
Solution :
We can calculate the propagation time as
Propagation time = (12000*1000)/240000000 =50 ms

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Data Communication Standards
The ISO(International Organization for Standardization) was one of the first

organizations to formally define a common way to connect computers.
Their architecture, called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) defines
a partitioning of network functionality into seven layers, where one or more
protocols implement the functionality assigned to a given layer. It is often
referred to as the 7-layer model. Starting at the bottom and working up.
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Physical Layer
 This layer is concerned with all aspects of transmitting and receiving (bits) on the
network.
 Functions:
 Conversion of bits into electrical or optical signal
 Ex.:- RJ45 , Ethernet
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Data link Layer
 The primary function of data link layer is divided data is received from network layer
into frames, that can be transmitted by physical layer.
 Other functions of data link layer :
 Error control and flow control
 Retransmit the message in same cases
 Add source and destination address(MAC)to the transmitted data
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Network Layer:
 This layer is responsible for providing physical routine of the data determine best
path between machines. Also this layer responsible for addressing and congestion
control.
 Ex.- IP
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Transport Layer:
 This layer is responsible for ensuring that data are transferred from point A to point
B reliably in the correct sequence and with out error, other functions of this layer
are
 Connection establishment, management, termination , error control, flow control,

and multiplexing.
 Ex.- TCP,UDP

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Session Layer:
 This layer establish manage and terminate session between applications, and
manage data exchange between presentation layer entities.
 Ex. Telnet, FTP
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Presentation Layer:
 This layer define data format such as ASCII,Binary,JPEG and encryption. This layer
convert data to be transmitted into standard format in this receiving side its
changed to appropriate format so that it can be utilized by receiving computer

Application Layer:
 The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network.
 It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services

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Internet Model Data Communication
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Physical layer(First Layer)
 The physical layer in the Internet model, as in the OSI model, is the physical
connection between the sender and receiver. Its role is to transfer a series of
electrical, radio, or light signals through the circuit.
 The physical layer includes all the hardware devices (e.g., computers, modems,
and switches) and physical media(e.g., cables and satellites). The physical layer
speciﬁes the type of connection and the electrical signals, radio waves, or light
pulses that pass through it

Transmission Media
 Guided Media
 Unguided Media

Transmission Media

Guided Media

Twisted-Pair Cable

Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines

Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines

UTP Connectors

Copper Media - Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Very common, cheap, easy to install
 It consists of 4 pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together
 The twisting has the effect of canceling unwanted signals.
 This cancellation effect also helps avoid interference from internal sources called
crosstalk.
 Crosstalk is the interference caused by the magnetic field around the adjacent pairs of
wires in the cable.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Copper Media – Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 STP uses two pairs of wires that are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.
 STP provides better noise protection than UTP cabling, however at a significantly higher
price

Coaxial Cable

Copper Media - Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable consists of a copper conductor surrounded by a layer of flexible

insulation.
 Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor.
 The second layer reduces the amount of outside electromagnetic interference.
 Covering the shield is the cable jacket.

Fiber optic

Fiber Media
 Fiber-optic cabling uses either glass or plastic fibers to guide light impulses from source
to destination.
 The bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses .
 Optical fiber cabling is capable of very large raw data bandwidth rates.
 Most current transmission standards have yet to approach the potential bandwidth of
this media.

Multimode Step-Index

Multimode Graded-Index

Single Mode

Fiber Construction

Fiber Compared to Copper Cabling
 Fiber media is immune to electromagnetic interference
 Optical fibers are thin and have relatively low signal loss, they can be operated at much greater
lengths than copper media,
 More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance (but for a higher capacity)
 Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable infrastructure
 More careful handling than copper media

Two fibers are required to support full duplex operation

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Tishk International University

Faculty of Engineering Safwan Mawlood

Safwan Mawlood Hussein

Topic Title Topic Objective

Physical Layer Characteristics Describe characteristics of the physical layer.

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Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones

Calculate (103) (102) (101) (100) Calculate 1 x 1000 2 x 100 3 x 10 4x1

Position Value 1000 100 10 1 Add them up… 1000 + 200 + 30 +4

Calculate (27) (26) (25) (24) (23) (22) (21) (20)

Position Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Positional Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Binary Number (11000000) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Calculate 1x128 1x64 0x32 0x16 0x8 0x4 0x2 0x1

Add Them Up… 128 + 64 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0

Binary Number (11000000) 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Calculate 1x128 1x64 0x32 0x16 0x8 0x4 0x2 0x1

Add Them Up… 128 + 64 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0 +0

Calculate 1x128 0x64 1x32 0x16 1x8 0x4 0x2 0x1

Binary Number (00001011) 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary Number (00001010) 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

Calculate 0x128 0x64 0x32 0x16 1x8 0x4 1x2 0x1 10

Follow the steps listed to convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal values:

Follow the steps listed to convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal values:

For example, D2 converted into decimal using the three-step process:

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco

Images :mages are also represented by

Video : Video refers to the recording or

 Data Communication is the exchange of data

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Data Communications System characteristics

1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the

File File server stores corporate and user files.

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Less complex Not as secure

Lower cost Not scalable

Used for simple tasks: transferring files and Slower performance

 No computer has more authority than another

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 These media are:

 Different types of network media have different features and benefits.

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

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 full-duplex transmission, it can transmit in both directions simultaneously, with no

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© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco

Network diagrams, often called topology

Note: Often, the terms port and

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link

A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one

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1. less expensive than mesh topology