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Silicon is the most important semiconductor in today’s electronics
|SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM
200 mm and 300 mm Si wafers.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of MEMC, Electronic Materials,
Inc.
GaAs ingots and wafers.

GaAs is used in high speed

electronic devices, and
optoelectronics.
|SOURCE: Courtesy of Sumitomo Electric
Industries, Ltd.
 S i c rysta l in 2 -D
h yb o rb ita ls
E lec tro n en ergy
E c+ 
Va le n ce CONDUCTION
BAND (CB)
e le ctro n Empty of electrons
Ec at 0 K.

B B an d g ap = E g
Ev
VALENCE BAND
S i io n co re (VB)
(+ 4 e) Full of electrons
at 0 K.
0

(a) (b) (c)

(a) A simplified two dimensional illustration of a Si atom with four hybrid

orbitals, hyb. Each orbital has one electron. (b) A simplified two dimensional
view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent bonds. (c) The energy band
diagram at absolute zero of temperature.

Fig 5.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
A two dimensional pictorial view of the Si crystal showing covalent
bonds as two lines where each line is a valence electron.
Fig 5.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E lec tro n e n e rg y

E c+ 
CB
Ec
h > Eg F ree e ­
h
Eg hole
Hole e­
Ev

VB

0
(a ) (b )
(a) A photon with an energy greater than Eg can excite an electron from the VB to the
CB. (b) When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, a free electron and a hole in the Si-Si bond
is created.
Fig 5.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 e­
h+

Thermal vibrations of atoms can break bonds and thereby create electron-
hole pairs.
Fig 5.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 - + CB +
e h h +
+
(a) h Eg h (d)
VB

+
+ h -
Ð
e
h + e +
(b) h h (e)

-
e
+
(c) +
h (f)
h

A pictorial illustration of a hole in the valence band wandering around the crystal due to the tunneling of electrons
from neighboring bonds.
Fig 5.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Ex

E le c tr o sta tic P E ( x )
V (x )

Ex

E lec tro n E n e rg y
CB

CB
(a) (b )

VB
H o le en e r g y

VB

x
x=0 x=L

When an electric field is applied, electrons in the CB and holes in the

VB can drift and contribute to the conductivity. (a) A simplified
illustration of drift in Ex. (b) Applied field bends the energy bands
since the electrostatic PE of the electron is -eV(x) and V(x) decreases in
the direction of Ex whereas PE increases.
Fig 5.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E g (E ) E E
(E -E c ) 1 /2
E c+  [1 - f(E )]
CB F o r elec tro n s A rea = n
Ec n E (E )
Ec

EF EF
Ev
Ev p E (E )

F o r h o les A rea = p
VB

0
g(E) f(E) nE(E) or pE(E)
(a) (b ) (c ) (d )
(a) Energy band diagram. (b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy
per unit volume). (c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy
of a state). (d) The product of g(E) and f(E) is the energy density of electrons in
the CB (number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under
nE(E) vs. E is the electron concentration in the conduction band.
Fig 5.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 CB

Ec Ec Ec
EFn
E Fi
EFp
Ev Ev Ev

VB

(a) (b) (c)

Energy band diagrams for (a) intrinsic (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors. In all cases, np = ni2

Fig 5.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 A s+
e-

Arsenic doped Si crystal. The four valence electrons of As allow it to

bond just like Si but the fifth electron is left orbiting the As site. The
energy required to release to free fifth-electron into the CB is very
small.
Fig 5.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Electron Energy

CB

Ec
~0.03 eV
Ed
As+ As+ As+ As+

Ev x Distance
into
As atomsites every 106 Si atoms crystal

Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped with 1 ppm As. There are donor
energy levels just below Ec around As+ sites.
Fig 5.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 h+
B- B-

F ree

(a ) (b )

Boron doped Si crystal. B has only three valence electrons. When it

substitutes for a Si atom one of its bonds has an electron missing and
therefore a hole as shown in (a). The hole orbits around the B- site by
the tunneling of electrons from neighboring bonds as shown in (b).
Eventually, thermally vibrating Si atoms provides enough energy to
free the hole from the B- site into the VB as shown.
Fig 5.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
E le ctro n e n e rg y
B ato m site s ev e ry 1 0 6 S i a to m s

x D ista n c e
Ec in to c rysta l

B- B- B- B-
Ea
~ 0.05eV
h+
Ev

VB

Energy band diagramfor a p-type Si doped with 1 ppmB. There are

acceptor energy levels just above Ev around B- sites. These acceptor
levels accept electrons fromthe VB and therefore create holes in the VB.
Fig 5.12
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 V(x)

x
Electron Energy Electrostatic PE(x) = -eV

Ex

EFi Ec
Ed
EF
Ev

n-Type Semiconductor
A B

Energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor connected to a

voltage supply of V volts. The whole energy diagram tilts because the
electron now has an electrostatic potential energy as well
Fig 5.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 T < Ts Ts < T < Ti T > Ti

CB
EF
+ +
A s+ A s As As EF A s A s + A s + A s A s+ A s+ A s+ A s+
Eg EF

VB

(a) T = T 1 (b) T = T 2 (c) T = T 3

(a) Below Ts, the electron concentration is controlled by the ionization of

the donors. (b) Between Ts and Ti, the electron concentration is equal to
the concentration of donors since they would all have ionized. (c) At high
temperatures, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the
number of electrons from ionized donors and the semiconductor behaves
as if intrinsic.
Fig 5.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 ln (n )

IN T R IN S IC
slo p e = -E g /2 k

IO N IZ A T IO N
E X T R IN S IC Ts slo pe = E /2 k
ln (N d )
Ti
n i (T )
1 /T
The temperature dependence of the electron concentration in an n-type
semiconductor.

Fig 5.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 6 00oC 400oC 2 0 0oC 2 7 oC 0 oC
L L L L
1018

2 .4 1 0 1 3 c m -3

Intrinsic Concentration (cm-3)

1015

Ge
1012

109 1 .4 5 1 0 1 0 cm -3
Si

106
2 .1 1 0 6 cm -3
G aA s
103
2 .5 3 1
3 .5 4 1 .5 2
1 0 0 0 /T (1 /K )
The temperature dependence of the intrinsic concentration.

Fig 5.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 1 2
KE = / m v K E > |PE |
e­
2 e

K E  |P E |
rc

A s+

K E < |PE|

Scattering of electrons by an ionized impurity

Fig 5.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 50000
L T -1.5

E le ctro n D rift M o b ility(cm 2 V -1 s -1 )

10000 Ge
Nd = 1014
N d = 1016 N d = 1 0 13

N d = 1017
1000

N d = 1018
100 Si
Nd = 1 0 19

 T 1 .5
10
70 100 800
T em p e ra tu re (K )
Log-log plot of drift mobility vs temperature for n-type Ge and n-type
Si samples. Various donor concentrations for Si are shown. Nd are in
cm-3. The upper right inset is the simple theory for lattice limited
mobility whereas the lower left inset is the simple theory for impurity
scattering limited mobility.
Fig 5.18
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 2000

D rift M o b ility(cm 2 V -1 s -1 )
1000

H o le s E le c tro n s

100

50
1 0 15 1 0 16 1 0 17 1 0 18 1 0 19 1 0 20
D o p an t C o n cen tratio n , cm -3
The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration in Si for
electrons and holes
Fig 5.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 log ( )
S e m ic o n d u c to r

R e s is tiv ity
LOGARITHMIC SCALE
IN T R IN S IC
M e ta l
lo g(n ) T

E X T R IN S IC

L a ttic e IO N IZ AT IO N
sc a tterin g
-3 /2 3 /2
T T
lo g ( ) Im p u rity
sca tte rin g

1 /T
H ig h T em p e ra tu re L o w T e m p e ra tu re

Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity for a doped (n-

type) semiconductor.
Fig 5.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E
CB
Im p u ritie s
fo rm in g CB
E Fn
a band Ec Ec
g (E )

Ev Ev
EFp
VB

(a ) (b )

(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors form a

band that overlaps the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.

Fig 5.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E n e rg y
CB

Ec
cb (k cb )
h = Eg
vb (k vb )
Ev

VB
D istan ce
Direct recombination in GaAs. kcb = kvb so that momentum conservation
is satisfied
Fig 5.22
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 CB
Ec

Er Er Er Phonons
Recombination
center
Ev
VB

(a) R eco m b ina tion

CB
Ec
Et Et Et
Trapping
center
Ev
VB

(b ) T rap p in g
Recombination and trapping. (a) Recombination in Si via a recombination center which has a localized energy
level at Er in the bandgap, usually near the middle. (b) Trapping and detrapping of electrons by trapping
centers. A trapping center has a localized energy level in the band gap.
Fig 5.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 CB
Ec
Ed

Ev

VB

Low level photoinjection into an n-type semiconductor in which

nn < nno
Fig 5.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Low level injection in an n-type semiconductor does not affect
nn but drastically affects the minority carrier concentration pn.
Fig 5.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Illu m in a tio n

A B C
- - -
- - - - - - - - + - + - - - + - - - + - -
-
- + +- + - + - -
- -- - + - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - + - + - - - - - + - -
+ + + -
- + - - -
- + - - + - - + + - - - - +
- - - + - + - - + - + - -
- - - - - - - + - - - + - + - + - - - + -
- -
n -typ e sem ic o n d u c to r in Illu m in a tio n with h  > E In d a rk a fte r
g
th e d a rk . c re ates e x c e ss h o le s: illu m in atio n . E x ce ss
p n = p no < < n no p n = p n o + p n  n n h o les a re d isap p e arin g
b y re c o m b in atio n .

Illumination of an n-type semiconductor results in excess electron

and hole concentrations. After the illumination, the recombination
process restores equilibrium; the excess electrons and holes simply
recombine.

Fig 5.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 G and p n (t)
G ph

Illu m in a tio n
0
p n o + p n ( )
h G ph p n (t') = p n (0 )e x p (-t'/ h )

p no
t o ff T im e, t
0
t'
Illumination is switched on at time t = 0 and then off at t = toff. The excess
minority carrier concentration, pn(t) rises exponentially to its steady
state value with a time constant h. From toff, the excess minority carrier
concentration decays exponentially to its equilibrium value.

Fig 5.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 L igh t

L W
V Iph

A semiconductor slab of length L, width W and depth D is illuminated

with light of wavelength . Iph is the steady state photocurrent.

Fig 5.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 n(x,t) N e t elec tro n d iffu sio n flu x
E le ctric cu rre n t

n (x,t) n1
n2

x
xo xo- xo xo+ 
xo- xo+ 
(a) (b)
(a) Arbitrary electron concentration n(x,t) profile in a semiconductor. There
is a net diffusion (flux) of electrons from higher to lower concentrations. (b)
Expanded view of two adjacent sections at xo. There are more electrons
crossing xo coming from left (xo-) than coming from right (xo+).

Fig 5.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 p (x,t) N et h o le d iffu sio n flu x
E le ctric cu rren t

xo x
x o- x o+ 

Arbitrary hole concentration p(x,t) profile in a semiconductor. There

is a net diffusion (flux) of holes from higher to lower concentrations.
There are more holes crossing xo coming from left (xo- ) than
coming from right (xo+ ).
Fig 5.30
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 S em itransp aren t electro d e
n-T yp e S em icon d u cto r

E le c tro n D iffu s io n

E le c tro n D rift
L igh t x
H o le D iffu sio n

H o le D rift

Ex

When there is an electric field and also a concentration gradient, charge

carriers move both by diffusion and drift. (Ex is the electric field.)

Fig 5.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
E x p o sed n2 Vo n1
A s+ D on or Ex

D iffu sio n F lu x
D rift
N et cu rren t = 0
Non-uniform doping profile results in electron diffusion towards the less
concentrated regions. This exposes positively charged donors and sets up a
built-in field Ex . In the steady state, the diffusion of electrons towards the
right is balanced by their drift towards the left.
Fig 5.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 p (x,t) S em ico n d u cto r
z

A
Jh J h + J h y

x+ x x
x

Consider an elemental volume Ax in which the hole concentration is p(x,t)

Fig 5.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 xo n -typ e sem ico n d u cto r

L ig h t

C u rren ts (m A )
E x c ess co n c en tratio n
D iffu sio n
p n (0 )  I D ,h D rift
p n (x) I d rift,e
n n (0 ) D iffu sio n 
n n (x) I D ,e
x  x ( m )
0 20 40 60 80
(a ) (b )

(a) Steady state excess carrier concentration profiles in an n-type

semiconductor that is continuously illuminated at one end. (b)
Majority and minority carrier current components in open circuit.
Total current is zero.
Fig 5.34
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E c+ 
CB
T herm alization

L arg e h  3 kT
Ec 2

Eg

h  E g Ev

VB

Optical absorption generates electron hole pairs. Energetic electrons must

loose their excess energy to lattice vibrations until their average energy is
(3/2)kT in the conduction band.

Fig 5.35
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 x x S em ico n d u cto r

Io

P h o to n flu x in P h o to n flu x o u t
I(x) I(x) - I
Absorption of photons within a small elemental volume of width  x.

Fig 5.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E  (1 /m icro n )
V a cu u m 1000
B
100
CB G aA s
h B B 10
P h o to n A
h A 1
Si
0 .1
VB 0 .0 1
A
g (E ) 0 .0 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P h o to n e n e rg y (e V )

T h e a b s o rp tio n c o e ff ic ie n t  d e p e n d s o n th e p h o to n e n e rg y h 
a n d h e n c e o n th e w a v e l e n g th . D e n s i ty o f s ta te s i n c r e a s e s fr o m
b a n d e d g e s a n d u s u a l ly e x h ib i ts p e a k s a n d tr o u g h s . G e n e r a ll y 
in c r e a s e s w it h th e p h o t o n e n e rg y g r e a t e r th a n E g b e c a u s e m o re
e n e rg e tic p h o t o n s c a n e x c i te e le c tro n s f ro m p o p u la te d r e g i o n s
o f th e V B to n u m e r o u s a v a il a b l e s ta te s d e e p i n th e C B .
Fig 5.37
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 L o n g itu d in al d irec tio n
C u rren t flo w
alo n g len g th L
m 
I
 T ra n s v e rse
T d irec tio n
T
V
T ra n sv erse
L stre s s
S tre ss S em ico n d u c to r L o n g itu d in a l
(a ) s tre ss (b )
P iez o re sis to r
F o rc e , F
S u p p o rt

(c) h
Si

C a n tilev er

Piezoresistivity and its applications. (a) Stress m along the current (longitudinal) direction
changes the resitivity by . (b) Stresses L and T cause a resisitivity change. (c) Aforce
applied to a cantilever bends it. Apiezoresistor at the support end (where the stress is large)
measures the stress, which is proportional to the force

Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 P re ss u re
P ie z o re sisto r D ia p h rag m

Si

C ro ss s ec tio n

D ia p h ra g m
R2
(d)
R1 R3 (d) Apressure sensor has four
piezoresistors R1, R2, R3, R4
embedded in a diaphragm. The
R4 pressures bends the diaphragm, which
generates stresses that are sensed by
P ie z o re sis to r the four piezoresistors.

To p v iew
Fig 5.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Vo

Eo

M eta l Neutral
semiconductor
D e p le tio n re g io n
region
Va cu u m W
le v e l M e ta l n -Typ e S e m ic o n d u c to r m - n

n  CB m - n = eV o CB
m Ec B Ec
EFn EFm EFn
EFm
Ev Ev
VB
VB
B efo re c o n ta ct A fter c o n ta c t

Formation of a Schottky junction between a metal and an n-type semiconductor

when  m >  n.
Fig 5.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 V Vr
I
M eta l n -T y p e S e m ico n d u cto r

e(V o -V ) CB
CB 1 mA
Ec B e(V o + V r )
Ec 1 A
Ev
Ev V
VB 0.2 V
10 A
VB

(c ) I-V C h ara cteristics o f a

(a ) F o rw a rd b iased S ch o ttk y
ju n ctio n . E le ctron s in th e C B o f th e
se m ico nd u ctor can re ad ily
o v erc o m e th e sm a ll P E b arrie r to
en te r th e m eta l.
(b) R ev erse b iased S ch ottk y ju n ction . S ch o ttk y ju n ctio n ex h ib its
E lectron s in the m etal can n o t ea sily rectifyin g p ro p erties (n e g ativ e
o v e rco m e th e P E b arrier B to enter th e cu rren t ax is is in m icro am p s)
sem icon d u cto r.

The Schottky junction.

Fig 5.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 D e p le tio n N e u tral n -typ e se m ic o n d u c to r
M e ta l re g io n re g io n
W
h >Eg

CB

EFm Ec

Ev
VB

Vo
Eo

E x tern al L o ad

The principle of the Schottky junction solar cell.

Fig 5.41
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 h >Eg Vo+ Vr
E >> Eo

i p h o to

M etal n-S i
W S am p lin g
Vr
R esisto r, R

Reverse biased Schottky photodiodes are frequently used as fast

photodetectors.
Fig 5.42
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 A cc u m u la tio n R eg io n B u lk S e m ico n d u c to r
O h m ic C o n tac t
m n CB CB
E Fm
Ec Ec
E Fn E Fm E Fn
Ev Ev
VB VB

M e tal n -typ e S e m ico n d u cto r

B e fo re C o n ta c t M etal n -typ e S e m ico n d u c to r
A fte r C o n ta c t

When a metal with a smaller workfunction than an n-type semiconductor are

put into contact, the resulting junction is an ohmic contact in the sense that it
does not limit the current flow.

Fig 5.43
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 (a) (b)
I I

CB Q CB
Q
Ec Ec
EFm EFn E Fm EFn

VB VB

Ohmic Contact Ohmic Contact

Region Region
Metal n-Type Semiconductor Metal n-Type Semiconductor

(a) Current from an n-type semiconductor to the metal results in heat

absorption at the junction. (b) Current from the metal to an n-type
semiconductor results in heat release at the junction.
Fig 5.44
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
When a dc current is passed through a semiconductor to which metal contacts
have been made, one junction absorbs heat and cools (the cold junction) and the
other releases heat and warms (the hot junction).
Fig 5.45
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Cross section of a typical thermoelectric cooler.
Fig 5.46
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Typical structure of a commercial thermoelectric cooler.

Fig 5.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Fig 5.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 PE(r)
PE of the electron around
r an isolated atom

When N atoms are

arranged to form the
crystal then there is an
overlap of individual
electron PE functions.
V(x)
a a
PE of the electron, V(x),
0 inside the crystal is
periodic with a period a.

x
x=0 a 2a 3a x=L

Surface Crystal Surface

The electron PE, V(x), inside the crsytal is periodic with the same
periodicity as that of the crystal, a. Far away outside the crsytal, by
choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
Fig 5.48
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 T h e E - k D iag ra m T h e E n erg y B an d
Ek D ia g ram

CB

CB
E m p ty k
e- e-
Ec Ec
Eg h h
Ev Ev
h+ h+
O c c u p ie d k
VB

VB
k
-/a /a
The E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor such as GaAs. The E-k
curve consists of many discrete points each point corresponding to a possible
state, wavefunction y k(x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal. The points
are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous curve.
In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points (yk(x) solutions).
Fig 5.49
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E E

CB
Ec In d ire c t B a n d G ap , E g
D irec t B an d G a p E g P h o to n CB
Ec
Ev kcb
Ev
VB
VB k vb
-k k -k k
E
(a ) G a A s (b ) S i

CB

Er Ec
Phonons
Ev
VB
-k k
(c) S i w ith a re c o m b in a tio n c e n te r
(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is therefore a direct band gap
semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect
band gap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center.
Fig 5.50
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E
E E
CB CB
L attice L attic e
sc a tte rin g sc atterin g

k1-
k- k3+
k+ k 1 +k 2 +
-k k -k k

-x kav = 0 x -x k av > 0 x

(a) (b )
(a) In the absence of a field, over a long time, average of all k values is
zero, there is no net momentum in any one particular direction. (b) In
the presence of a field E in the -x direction, the electron accelerates in
the +x direction increasing its k value along x until it is scattered to a
random k value. Over a long time, average of all k values is along the
+x direction. Thus the electron drifts along +x.

Fig 5.51
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E
Ev
b' b
(a) VB

-k k
E

b'
(b )
VB

-k k
(a) In a full valence band there is no net contribution to the current.
There are equal numbers of electrons (e.g. at b and b') with
opposite momenta. (b) If there is an empty state (hole) at b at the
top of the band then the electron at b' contributes to the current.
Fig 5.52
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E
e x te n d e d
x
CB
E x te n d e d sta te s
 Ec
lo c aliz e d T a il sta te s
L o c a liz e d sta te s
E n v e lo p e
x
M o b ility
D e fe c ts
gap

lo ca liz ed
x
T a il sta te s
Ev
E x te n d e d sta te s
VB g (E )

Schematic representation of the density of states g(E) vs. energy E for

an amorphous semiconductor and the associated electron
wavefunctions for an electron in the extended and localized states.

Fig 5.53
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
The GaAs crystal structure in two dimensions. Average number of valence
electrons per atom is four. Each Ga atom covalently bonds with four neighboring
As atoms and vice versa.

Fig 5.54
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
In the presence of a temperature gradient, there is an internal field and a voltage
difference. The Seebeck coefficient is defined as dV/dT, the potential difference per unit
temperature difference.
Fig 5.55
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)