Chapter 2

Solar Radiation and its Measurement,

Solar Energy Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 1
 Overview

Every day the earth receives thousands of times

more energy from the sun than is consumed in all
other resources.
The sunlight falling on a typical house can provide
from 1/3 to ½ of the heating needs of that house.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 2
 In-exhaustible source of useful energy

In general, the energy produced and radiated by the

sun, more specifically the term refers to the sun’s
energy that reaches the earth.
Solar energy, received in the form of radiation, can be
converted directly or indirectly into other forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity, which can be
utilized by human.
Since the sun is expected to radiate at an essentially
constant rate for a few billion years, it may be
regarded as an in-exhaustible source of useful energy

Solar Radiation: 2 - 3
 Sun - Earth Relationships
• The beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.
• The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by
various kinds of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 x 10^6 km. while
that of the earth is 1.27 x10^4 km.

93 million miles, average (1.5 x 108 km)

1 Astronomical Unit
(Distance traveled in 8.31 minutes at the Speed of
Light)

Sun: Earth:

Diameter: 865,000 miles (1,392,000 km, 109 times earth) Diameter: 7,930 miles (12,756 km)
Mass: 2 x 1030 kg (330,000 times earth) Mass: 5.97 x 1024 kg
Density: 1.41 g/cm3 Density: 5.52 kg/cm3
Gravity: 274 m/s2 (28 g) Gravity: 9.81 m/s2 (1 g)

Surface Temperature: 10,000 F (5800 K) Typical Surface Temperature: 68 F (300K)

Earth’s Orbit Around Sun: 1 year

Earth’s Rotation about its Polar Axis: 1 day

Solar Radiation: 2 - 4
 Solar Radiation
• Solar radiation is electromagnetic radiation ranging from
about 0.25 to 4.5 m in wavelength, including the near
ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and near infrared (IR)
radiation.
• Solar energy reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere
consists of about 8% ultraviolet radiation (short wave
length, less than 0.39 m), 46% visible light (0.39 to 0.78
m), and 46% infrared radiation (long wave length more
than 0.78 m).
Common units of measure for
electromagnetic radiation wavelengths:

1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 meter (m)

1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 meter
1 micrometer (m) = 10-6 meter
1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meter
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters
NASA Solar Radiation: 2 - 5
 near
Wavelength
Gamma rays

ultra-violet
1Å

0.25 m
10 Å X rays

0.3
100 Å
Ultraviolet Radiation
0.1
m Visible Light
1
m

10 Infrared Radiation
m

100
m

1 mm

Microwaves
10 mm

0.5

(m)
Visible light

Wavelength
100 mm

1m
Short Radio
Solar spectrum

Waves (FM/TV)
10 m

100 m

AM Radio
103 m
0.7

104 m
Long Radio Waves

105 m
near
infra-red
4.5 m
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Solar Radiation: 2 - 6
 Solar Irradiance
(Solar
 Solar irradiance is the sun’s radiant power,Power)
represented in units of W/m 2

or kW/m2.

 The Solar Constant is the average value of solar irradiance outside the
earth’s atmosphere, about 1366 W/m2.

 Typical peak value is 1000 W/m2 on a terrestrial surface facing the sun
on a clear day around solar noon at sea level, and used as a rating
condition for PV modules and arrays.

One Typical peak value per m2

1m Square 1000 watts = 1 kilowatt
Meter

1m
Solar Radiation: 2 - 7
 Solar Irradiance
(Solar
Solar constant (Isc ) Power)
• The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the
atmosphere is called the solar constant Isc .
• This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a
unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the
mean distance of the earth from the sun.
• Because of the sun’s distance and activity vary
throughout the year; the rate of arrival of solar radiation
varies accordingly.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 8
 Solar Irradiance
For south-facing fixed surfaces, solar power varies over the day,
peaking at solar noon.
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

Sunrise Noon Sunset

Time of Day
Solar Radiation: 2 - 9
 Solar Irradiation
(Solar
Energy)
 Solar irradiation is the sun’s radiant energy incident on a surface
of unit area, expressed in units of kWh/m2.
 Typically expressed on an average daily basis for a given month.
 Also referred to as solar insolation or peak sun hours.

 Solar irradiation (energy) is equal to the average solar irradiance

(power) multiplied by time.

 Peak sun hours (PSH) is the average daily amount of solar energy
received on a surface. PSH are equivalent to:
 The number of hours that the solar irradiance would be at a peak level of
1 kW/m2.
 Also the equivalent number of hours per day that a PV array will operate
at peak rated output levels at rated temperature.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 10
 Solar Power and
Solar
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)
Energy
Solar irradiance (power)

Solar irradiation (energy)

is the area under the solar
irradiance (power) curve

Sunrise Noon Sunset

Time of Day

Solar Radiation: 2 - 11
 Peak Sun Hours
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

Peak Sun Hours

1000 W/m2
Solar
Area of box equals Irradiance
area under curve

Solar Insolation

Sunrise Noon Sunset

Time of Day (hrs)

Solar Radiation: 2 - 12
 Solar Power and Energy:
Examples
 The solar power incident on a surface averages 400 W/m2 for 12
hours. How much solar energy is received?
 400 W/m2 x 12 hours = 4800 Wh/m2 = 4.8 kWh/m2 = 4.8 PSH

 The amount of solar energy collected on a surface over 8 hours is

4 kWh/m2. What is the average solar power received over this
period?
 4 kWh/m2 / 8 hours = 0.5 kW/m2 = 500 W/m2

 A PV system produces 6 kW AC output at peak sun and average

operating temperatures. How much energy is produced from this
system per day if the solar energy received on the array
averages
5. peak sun hours?
 6 kW x 4.5 hours/day = 27 kWh/day
Solar Radiation: 2 - 13
 Atmospheric Effects
 Approximately 30% of extraterrestrial solar power is absorbed or
reflected by the atmosphere before reaching the earth’s surface.
 Effects vary significantly with altitude, latitude, time of day and year, air
pollutants, weather patterns and wavelength of solar radiation.

 Direct beam (normal) radiation is the component of total global

solar radiation incident on a surface normal to the sun’s rays,
that travels in parallel lines directly from the sun.

 Diffuse radiation is the component of the total global solar

radiation incident on a surface that is scattered or reflected.
 May also include ground reflected radiation (albedo).

 Total global solar radiation is comprised of the direct, diffuse and

reflected components (albedo).

Solar Radiation: 2 - 14
 Atmospheric Effects

Parallel rays from sun

Sun

Reflection
Solar Constant =
1366 W/m2 Outer Limits of Atmosphere

Atmospheric
Absorption,
Scattering and
Reflections Cloud
Reflections

Diffuse Radiation
Direct Radiation

Diffuse Radiation

Reflected (Albedo) Radiation

Earth’s
Surface

TOTAL GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION - DIRECT + DIFFUSE

Solar Radiation: 2 - 15
 Solar Radiation Measurements

 A pyranometer measures total global solar irradiance (solar

power).
 Measurements over time are integrated to calculate the total solar
irradiation (solar energy) received.

 Irradiance measurements are used in the field to translate the

actual output of PV array and systems to a reference
condition and verify performance with expectations.

 Small inexpensive meters using calibrated PV cells as sensors

are available from $150 and up.
 A small PV module with calibrated short-circuit current can also be used to
approximate solar radiation levels.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 16
 Precision Spectral
Pyranometer
(PSP)
 A pyranometer measures
broadband global solar radiation
(direct and diffuse) with a
thermopile.

 Used for precision laboratory

measurements and weather
stations.

 Dual glass domes improve low

NREL, Steve Wilcox incidence angle and thermal
accuracy.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 17
 Normal Incidence
Pyrheliometer
(NIP)
 A pyrheliometer measures the
direct normal component of total
global solar radiation.

 Instrument must always track the

sun.

 Sensor is located at the back of a

long tube with a field of view of
5.7° - the width of the solar disk.
NREL/Tom Stoffer

Solar Radiation: 2 - 18
 Photovoltaic Reference Cell

 A reference cell is a small PV

device used to measure solar
irradiance.

 Calibrated current output is

proportional to solar irradiance.

 Used for measuring solar

radiation for PV cell or module
performance in indoor
simulators.

PV Measurements, Inc.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 19
Daystar Solar Meter

 Handheld solar meters use a

small PV cell to measure solar
irradiance.

 Careful alignment with plane of

array required for accurate
measurements.

 Low cost, good for basic field

measurements.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 20
 Solar Collector 

• A solar collector is a device that collects and/or

concentrates solar radiation from the Sun.
• These devices are primarily used for active solar
heating and allow for the heating of water for
personal use.
• These collectors are generally mounted on the roof
and must be very sturdy as they are exposed to a
variety of different weather conditions.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 21
 Solar Collector 

• The use of these solar collectors provides an

alternative for traditional domestic water heating
using a water heater, potentially reducing energy
costs over time.
• As well as in domestic settings, a large number of
these collectors can be combined in an array and
used to generate electricity in solar thermal power
plants.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 22
 Types of Solar Collector 

• There are many different types of solar collectors, but

all of them are constructed with the same basic
premise in mind.
• In general, there is some material that is used to
collect and focus energy from the Sun and use it to
heat water.
• The simplest of these devices uses a black material
surrounding pipes that water flows through.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 23
 Types of Solar Collector 

• The black material absorbs the solar radiation very

well, and as the material heats up the water it
surrounds.
• This is a very simple design, but collectors can get
very complex.
• Absorber plates can be used if a high temperature
increase isn't necessary, but generally devices that
use reflective materials to focus sunlight result in a
greater temperature increase. Solar Radiation: 2 - 24
 Flat Plate Collector 

• These collectors are simply metal boxes that have

some sort of transparent glazing as a cover on top of
a dark-colored absorber plate.
• The sides and bottom of the collector are usually
covered with insulation to minimize heat losses to
other parts of the collector.
• Solar radiation passes through the transparent
glazing material and hits the absorber plate.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 25
 Flat Plate Collector 

• This plate heats up, transferring the heat to either

water or air that is held between the glazing and
absorber plate.
• Sometimes these absorber plates are painted with
special coatings designed to absorb and retain heat
better than traditional black paint.
• These plates are usually made out of metal that is a
good conductor - usually copper or aluminum.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 26
Flat Plate Collector 

Solar Radiation: 2 - 27
 Evacuated Tube Collector 

• This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated

tubes to heat water for use.
• These tubes utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to
capture the suns energy while minimizing the loss of
heat to the surroundings.
• They have an inner metal tube which acts as the
absorber plate, which is connected to a heat pipe to
carry the heat collected from the Sun to the water.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 28
 Evacuated Tube Collector 
• This heat pipe is essentially a pipe where the fluid
contents are under a very particular pressure.
• At this pressure, the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling
liquid in it while the "cold" end has condensing
vapor.
• This allows for thermal energy to move more
efficiently from one end of the pipe to the other.
• Once the heat from the Sun moves from the hot end
of the heat pipe to the condensing end, the thermal
energy is transported into the water being heated for 2 - 29
Solar Radiation:
Evacuated Tube Collector 

Solar Radiation: 2 - 30
Evacuated Tube Collector 

Solar Radiation: 2 - 31
 Line Focus Collectors
• These collectors, sometimes known as parabolic
troughs, use highly reflective materials to collect and
concentrate the heat energy from solar radiation.
• These collectors are composed of parabolically
shaped reflective sections connected into a long
trough.
• A pipe that carries water is placed in the center of this
trough so that sunlight collected by the reflective
material is focused onto the pipe, heating the
contents. Solar Radiation: 2 - 32
 Line Focus Collectors
• These are very high powered collectors and are thus
generally used to generate steam for Solar thermal
power plants and are not used in residential
applications.
• These troughs can be extremely effective in
generating heat from the Sun, particularly those that
can pivot, tracking the Sun in the sky to ensure
maximum sunlight collection.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 33
Line Focus Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 34
Line Focus Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 35
 Point Focus Collectors
• These collectors are large parabolic dishes composed of
some reflective material that focus the Sun's energy
onto a single point.
• The heat from these collectors is generally used for
driving Stirling engines.
• Although very effective at collecting sunlight, they must
actively track the Sun across the sky to be of any value.
• These dishes can work alone or be combined into an
array to gather even more energy from the Sun.
Solar Radiation: 2 - 36
 Point Focus Collectors
• Point focus collectors and similar apparatuses can also
be utilized to concentrate solar energy for use with
Concentrated photovoltaics.
• In this case, instead of producing heat, the Sun's energy
is converted directly into electricity with high efficiency
photovoltaic cells designed specifically to harness
concentrated solar energy.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 37
Point Focus Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 38
Point Focus Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 39
Solar Collectors

Solar Radiation: 2 - 40
 Solar Energy Storage
• Solar energy is a time dependent and intermittent
energy resource.
• In general energy needs or demands for a very wide
variety of applications are also time dependent, but in
an entirely different manner from the solar energy
supply.
• This problem is specially severe for solar energy when
it is used for heating in winter, because of its low
availability during this period.
Solar Radiation: 2 - 41
 Solar Energy Storage
• There is thus a marked need for the storage of energy or
another product of the solar process, if the solar energy is
to meet the energy needs.
• The need for energy storage of some kind is almost
immediate evident for a solar electric system.
• An optimally designed solar-electric system will collect
and convert when the insolation is available during the
day.
• Thus the addition of storage can increase the reliability of
being able to deliver power at an arbitrary needed time.
Solar Radiation: 2 - 42
 Benefits of solar energy storage

Storage of solar energy in a solar system may:

• Permit solar energy to be captured when insolation is
highest and then later used when the need is greatest. It
can thus transform a diurnal(cyclic) solar energy input into
a more uniform desired electrical or thermal output.
• Make it possible to deliver electrical load power demand
during times when insolation is below, normal or non-
existent.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 43
 Benefits of solar energy storage

• Be located close to the load, thereby minimizing the need

for costly transmission and distribution facilities which
would otherwise be required to meet peak load demands
when storage not present there.
• Improve the reliability of the solar thermal as well as solar
electric system.
• Permit a better match between the solar energy input and
the load demand output than would be the case without
storage.

Solar Radiation: 2 - 44
 Optimum capacity of an energy
storage system
The optimum capacity of an energy storage system depends in general, on
the following factors:
• The expected time dependence of solar radiation availability.
• The nature of loads to be expected on the process.
• The degree of reliability needed for the process.
• The manner in which auxiliary energy is supplied.
• The size of the solar thermal power system or solar-electric generator.
• The cost per kWH of the stored energy.
• The permissible capital cost allocated to storage.
• An economic analysis that determines how much of the total usually
annual loads should be carried by solar and how much by auxiliary energy
sources.
Solar Radiation: 2 - 45