Cuttingch 08

CHAPTER 8
Material-
Removal
Processes:
Cutting
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
Cutting Processes
FIGURE 8.1 Examples of cutting processes.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Orthogonal Cutting
FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process (also called

orthogonal cutting).

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chip Formation
FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting.
(b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and
their micrographs: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight
primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the tool-chip
interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge; (d) continuous
chip with large primary shear zone; (e) segmented or
nonhomogeneous chip; and (f) discontinuous chip. Source: After
M. C. Shaw, P. K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Continuous Chip Formation
FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool side of a continuous chip produced in
turning.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Hardness Distribution in the Cutting Zone
FIGURE 8.6 (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note
that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than
the bulk metal. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c)
Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15X. Source:
Courtesy of Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Sciences, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chip Breakers
FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip

breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of
curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of
a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools, acting as chip breakers.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chips Produced In Turning
FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece
and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and
breaks off. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Oblique Cutting
FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view,
showing the inclination angle i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Right-Hand Cutting Tool
FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools
have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced
by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Prentice Hall, 2003
Forces on a Cutting Tool
FIGURE 8.11 Forces acting on a cutting tool in two-dimensional cutting.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Thrust Force/Rake Angle
FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a

function of rake angle and feed in
orthogonal cutting of AISI 1112 cold-
rolled steel. Note that at high rake
angles, the thrust force is negative. A
negative thrust force has important
implications in the design of machine
tools and in controlling the stability of
the cutting processes. Source: After S.
Kobayashi and E. G. Thomsen.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Orthogonal Cutting Data
3
α φ γ μ β Fc Ft (lb) ut (in.-lb/in x us uf uf/ut
3
(lb) 10 ) (%)
25° 20.9° 2.55 1.46 56 380 224 320 209 111 35
35 31.6 1.56 1.53 57 254 102 214 112 102 48
40 35.7 1.32 1.54 57 232 71 195 94 101 52
45 41.9 1.06 1.83 62 232 68 195 75 120 62
*t0=0.0025 in.; w = 0.475 in.; V = 90 ft/min; tool: high-speed steel.
Source: After E. G. Thomsen.
TABLE 8.1 Data on orthogonal cutting of 4130 steel.
α V φ γ μ β Fc Ft ut us uf uf/ut
(%)
+10 197 17 3.4 1.05 46 370 273 400 292 108 27
400 19 3.1 1.11 48 360 283 390 266 124 32
642 21.5 2.7 0.95 44 329 217 356 249 107 30
1186 25 2.4 0.81 39 303 168 328 225 103 31
-10 400 16.5 3.9 0.64 33 416 385 450 342 108 24
637 19 3.5 0.58 30 384 326 415 312 103 25
1160 22 3.1 0.51 27 356 263 385 289 96 25
* t0 = 0.037 in.; w = 0.25 in.; tool: cemented carbide.
Source: After M.E. Merchant.
TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Shear and Normal Force
FIGURE 8.13 Shear force and normal force as
a function of the area of the shear plane and the
rake angle for 85-15 brass. Note that the shear
stress in the shear plane is constant, regardless
of the magnitude of the normal stress. Thus,
normal stress has no effect on the shear flow
stress of the material. Source: After S.
Kobayashi and E. G. Thomsen, J. Eng. Ind., 81:
251-262, 1959.
FIGURE 8.14 Schematic illustration of

the distribution of normal and shear stresses
at the tool-chip interface (rake face). Note
that, whereas the normal stress increases
continuously toward the tip of the tool, the
shear stress reaches a maximum and
remains at that value (a phenomenon know
as sticking; see Section 4.4.1).

Prentice Hall, 2003
Shear-Angle Relationships
FIGURE 8.15 (a) Comparison of experimental and theoretical shear-angle relationships. More recent analytical
studies have resulted in better agreement with experimental data. (b) Relation between the shear angle and the friction
for various alloys and cutting speeds. Source: S. Kobayashi et al., Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Ind., 82: 333-347, 1960.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Specific-Energy in Cutting
MATERIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY
3 3
W-s/mm hp-min/in
Aluminum alloys 0.4-1.1 0.15-0.4
Cast irons 1.6-5.5 0.6-2.0
Copper alloys 1.4-3.3 0.5-1.2
High-temperature alloys 3.3-8.5 1.2-3.1
Magnesium alloys 0.4-0.6 0.15-0.2
Nickel alloys 4.9-6.8 1.8-2.5
Refractory alloys 3.8-9.6 1.1-3.5
Stainless steels 3.0-5.2 1.1-1.9
Steels 2.7-9.3 1.0-3.4
Titanium alloys 3.0-4.1 1.1-1.5
* At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply the energy by 1.25 for dull tools.
TABLE 8.3 Approximate specific-energy requirements in cutting operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Temperature Distribution in the Cutting Zone
FIGURE 8.16 Typical temperature distribution

in the cutting zone. Note that the maximum
temperature is about halfway up the face of the
tool and that there is a steep temperature gradient
across the thickness of the chip. Some chips may
become red hot, causing safety hazards to the
operator and thus necessitating the use of safety
guards. Source: After G. Vieregge.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Temperature Distribution in Turning
FIGURE 8.17 Temperature distribution in turning: (a) flank temperature for tool shape (see
Fig. 8.41): (b) temperature of the tool-chip interface. Note that the rake face temperature is
higher than that at the flank surface. Source: After B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Energy Distribution As A Function of
Cutting Speed
FIGURE 8.18 Typical plot of energy distribution as a function of cutting speed. Note that most of the cutting
energy is carried away by the chip (in the form of heart), particularly as speed increases. For dimensional accuracy
during cutting, it is important not to allow the workpiece temperature to rise significantly.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Terminology in Lathe Turning
FIGURE 8.19
Terminology used in a
turning operation on a
lathe, where f is the feed
(in./rev or mm/rev) and d
is the depth of cut. Note
that feed in turning is
equivalent to the depth of
cut in orthogonal cutting
(Fig. 8.2), and the depth of
cut in turning is
equivalent to the turning
is equivalent to the width
of cut in orthogonal
cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Types of Cutting Tool
Wear
FIGURE 8.20 (a) Types of wear

observed in cutting tools. The thermal
cracks shown are usually observed in
interrupted cutting operations, such as in
milling. (b) Catastrophic failure of tools.
(c) Features of tool wear in a turning
operation. The VB indicates average
flank wear. Source: (a) and (b) After V.
C. Venkatesh. (c) International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Prentice Hall, 2003
Crater and Flank Wear on a Tool
FIGURE 8.21 (a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a carbide tool. Source: J. C, Keefe,
Lehigh University.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Effect of Workpiece Microstructure on Tool Life in
Turning
FIGURE 8.22 Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given in terms of the time (in minutes)
required to reach a flank wear land of a specified dimension. (a) ductile cast iron. (b) Steels, with identical hardness. Note the
rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Tool-Life Curves
FIGURE 8.23 (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse
of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations. (b) Relationship between
measured temperature during cutting and tool life (flank wear). Note that high cutting
temperatures severely reduce tool life. See also Eq. (8.30). Source: After H. Takeyama and Y.
Murata.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Wear of Cutting Tools
High-speed steels 0.08-0.2
Cast alloys 0.1-0.15
Carbides 0.2-0.5
VTn = C
Ceramics 0.5-0.7
TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various cutting tools.
OPERATION ALLOWABLE WEAR LAND (mm)

HIGH-SPEED STEELS CARBIDES
Turning 1.5 0.4
Face milling 1.5 0.4
End milling 0.3 0-.3
Drilling 0.4 0.4
Reaming 0.15 0.15
TABLE 8.5 Allowable average wear land for cutting tools for various operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Crater-Wear Rate/Average Tool Chip Interface
Temperature
FIGURE 8.25 Interface of chip (left) and rake

face of tool (right) and crater wear in cutting
FIGURE 8.24 Relationship between AISI 1004 steel at 3 m/s (585 ft/min).
crater-wear rate and average tool-chip Discoloration of the tool indicates high
interface temperature in turning: (a) C-1 temperature (loss of temper). Note how the
Carbide; (c) C-5 carbide. Note that crater crater-wear pattern coincides with the
wear increases rapidly within a narrow discoloration pattern. Compare this pattern with
range of temperature. Source: After K. J. the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 8.16.
Trigger and B. T. Chao. Source: Courtesy of P. K. Wright.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Mean Flank Wear/Maximum Crater Wear/Acoustic
Emission
FIGURE 8.26 Relationship between mean flank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic emission (noise generated
during cutting) as a function of machining time. This technique is being developed as a means for monitoring wear rate
in various cutting processes without interrupting the operation. Source: After M. S, Lan and D. A. Dornfeld.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Range of
Surface
Rough-
nesses
FIGURE 8.27 Range of surface
roughnesses obtained in various
machining processes. Note the wide
range within each group. (See also
Fig. 9.27).

Prentice Hall, 2003
Surfaces Produced on Steel
FIGURE 8.28 Surfaces produced on steel by cutting, as observed with a scanning electron
microscope: (a) turned surface and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J. T. Black and
S, Ramalingam.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Effects of a Dull Tool
FIGURE 8.29 Schematic illustration of a dull tool in orthogonal cutting (exaggerated). Note
that at small depths of cut, the rake angle can effectively become negative. In such cases, the
tool may simply ride over the workpiece surface, burnishing it.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Inclusions in Free-Machining Steels
FIGURE 8.30 Photomicrographs showing various types of inclusions in low-carbon, resulfurized free-machining steels.
(a) Manganese-sulfide inclusions in AISI 1215 steel. (b) Manganese-sulfide inclusions and glassy manganese-silicate-type
oxide (dark) in AISI 1215 steel. (c) Manganese sulfide with lead particle as tails in AISI 12L14 steel. Source: Courtesy of
Inland Steel Company.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Hardness/Temperature
FIGURE 8.31 Hardness of various

cutting-tool materials as a function
of temperature (hot hardness). The
wide range in each group of
materials results from the variety of
tool compositions and treatments
available for that group.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
PROPERTY CARBIDES
HIGH-SPEED CAST WC TiC CERAMICS CUBIC SINGLE-
STEEL ALLOYS BORON CRYSTAL
NITRIDE DIAMOND*
Hardness 83-86 HRA 82-84 HRA 90-95 HRA 91-93 HRA 91-95 HRA 4000-5000 HK 7000-8000 HK
46-62 HRC 1800-2400 HK 1800-3200 HK 2000-3000 HK
Compressive strength
MPa 4100-4500 1500-2300 4100-5850 3100-3850 2750-4500 6900 6900
3
psi x 10 600-650 220-335 600-850 450-560 400-650 1000 1000
Transverse rupture strength
MPa 2400-4800 1380-2050 1050-2600 1380-1900 345-950 700 1350
3
psi x 10 350-700 200-300 150-375 200-275 50-135 105 200
Impact strength
J 1.35-8 0.34-1.25 0.34-1.35 0.79-1.24 < 0.1 < 0.5 < 0.2
in.-lb 12-70 3-11 3-12 7-11 <1 <5 <2
Modulus of elasticity
GPa 200 - 520-690 310-450 310-410 850 820-1050
5
psi x 10 30 - 75-100 45-65 45-60 125 120-150
Density
3
kg/m 8600 8000-8700 10,000-15,000 5500-5800 4000-4500 3500 3500
3
lb/in 0.31 0.29-0.31 0.36-0.54 0.2-0.22 0.14-0.16 0.13 0.13
Volume of hard phase (%) 7-15 10-20 70-90 - 100 95 95
Melting or decomposition
temperature
°C 1300 - 1400 1400 2000 1300 700
°F 2370 - 2550 2550 3600 2400 1300
Thermal conductivity, W/mK 30-50 - 42-125 17 29 13 500-2000
Coefficient of thermal expansion, 12 - 4-6.5 7.5-9 6-8.5 4.8 1.5-4.8
-6
x 10 /°C
* The values for polycrystalline diamond are generally lower, except impact strength, which is
higher.
TABLE 8.6 Typical range of properties of various tool materials.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Carbide Inserts
FIGURE 8.32 (a) Typical
carbide inserts with various
shapes and chip-breaker
features. Round inserts are
also available. The holes in
the inserts are standardized
for interchangeability.
Source: Courtesy of
Kyocera Engineered
Ceramics, Inc., and
Manufacturing Engineering,
Society of Manufacturing
Engineers. (b) Methods of
attaching inserts to a tool
shank by clamping, (c) with
wing lockpins, and (d) with
a brazed insert on a shank.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Relative Edge
Strength
FIGURE 8.33 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts
with various shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles.
Source: Kennametal, Inc.
FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparation of

inserts to improve edge strength.
Source: Kennametal, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Relative Time to Machine
FIGURE 8.35 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, with
indication of the year the tool materials were introduced. Source: Sandvik Coromant.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Wear Patterns
FIGURE 8.36 Wear patterns on high-speed-steel uncoated and titanium-nitride-coated

tools. Note that flank wear is lower of the coated tool.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Multiphase Coatings
FIGURE 8.37 Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide are
separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. Inserts with as many as 13 layers of coatings have been made. Coatings
have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range of 2-10µm (80-400µin.). Source: Courtesy of Kennametal,
Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Properties of Tool Materials
FIGURE 8.38 Ranges of properties for various groups of tool materials. (See also various
tables in this chapter.)

Prentice Hall, 2003
Construction of Insert
FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or diamond layer on a

tungsten-carbide insert.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Process Characteristics Commercial tolerances
(±mm)
Machining
Turning Turning and facing operations on all types of
materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate,
but medium to high with turret lathes and automatic
Fine: 0.05-0.13
Rough: 0.13
Skiving: 0.025-0.05
Processes
machines, requiring less-skilled labor.
Boring Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics 0.025
similar to turning; stiffness of boring bar important to
avoid chatter.
Drilling Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires 0.075
boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high
production rate; labor skill required depends on hole
location and accuracy specified.
Milling Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, 0.13-0.25
and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to
medium production rate; requires skilled labor.
Planing Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large 0.08-0.13 TABLE 8.7 General
surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor
skill required depends on part shape.
characteristics of machining
Shaping Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively 0.05-0.13 processes.
small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production;
labor skill required depends on part shape.
Broaching External and internal flat surfaces, slots and contours 0.025-0.15
with good surface finish; costly tooling; high
production rate; labor skill required depends on part
shape.
Sawing Straight and contour cuts on flats or structural shapes; 0.8
not suitable for hard materials unless saw has carbide
teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate;
requires only low labor skill.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Lathe
Operations
FIGURE 8.40 Various

cutting operations that can
be performed on a lathe.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Designations for a Right-
Handed Cutting Tool
FIGURE 8.41 (a) Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool; solid high-speed-steel
tools have a similar designation. The designation “right hand” means that the tool travels from right
to left, as shown in Fig. 8.19 (b) Square insert in a right-hand toolholder for a turning operation. A
wide variety of toolholder is available for holding inserts at various angles. Thus, the angles shown
in (a) can be achieved easily by selecting an appropriate insert and toolholder. Source: Kennametal,
Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Turning Operation
FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. cutting speed is the surface
speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed
force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined.
Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Range of Cutting Speeds
FIGURE 8.43 The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool
materials. Source: Valenite, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Cutting Speeds in Turning
WORKPIECE MATERIAL CUTTING SPEED
m/min ft/min
Aluminum alloys 200-1000 650-3300
Cast iron, gray 60-900 200-3000
Copper alloys 50-700 160-2300
High-temperature alloys 20-400 65-1300
Steels 50-500 160-1600
Stainless steels 50-300 160-1000
Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-240 300-800
Titanium alloys 10-100 30-330
Tungsten alloys 60-150 200-500
Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides and ceramic cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed steel
tool are lower than indicated. The higher ranges are for coated carbides and cermets. Speeds for
diamond tools are significantly higher than those indicated.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm (0.02-0.5 in.)
(c) Feeds, f, are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/rev (0.006-0.040 in./rev).
TABLE 8.8 Approximate range of recommended cutting speeds for turning operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Components of a Lathe
FIGURE 8.44 Schematic illustration of the components of a lathe. Source: Courtesy of

Heidenreich & Harbeck.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Computer-Numerical-Control Lathe
FIGURE 8.45 A computer-numerical-control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine.
Source: Jones & Lamson.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Machine Tool Parts Example
FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control machine tools.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Production Rates in Cutting
OPERATION RATE
Turning
Engine lathe Very low to low
Tracer lathe Low to medium
Turret lathe Low to medium
Computer-control lathe Low to medium
Single-spindle chuckers Medium to high
Multiple-spindle chuckers High to very high
Boring Very low
Drilling Low to medium
Milling Low to medium
Planing Very low
Gear Cutting Low to medium
Broaching Medium to high
Sawing Very low to low
Note: Production rates indicated are relative: very low is about one or more parts per hour;
medium is approximately 100 parts per hour; very high is 1000 or more parts per hour.
TABLE 8.9 Typical production rates for various cutting operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Vertical Boring Mill
FIGURE 8.47 Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical boring mill.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chisel and Crankshaft-Point Drills
FIGURE 8.48 (a) Standard chisel-point drill, with various features indicated. (b)
Crankshaft-point drill.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Drills and Drilling Operations
FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Speeds and Feeds in Drilling
WORKPIECE SURFACE FEED, mm/rev (in./rev) RPM
MATERIAL SPEED DRILL DIAMETER
m/min ft/min 1.5 mm 12.5 mm 1.5 mm 12.5 mm
(0.060 in.) (0.5 in.)
Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000
Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000
Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500
Steels 20-30 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-6400 500-800
Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2100-4300 250-500
Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1300-4300 150-500
Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Thermoplastics 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500
Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and
feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.
TABLE 8.10 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Reamer and Tap Terminology
FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a helical reamer.
FIGURE 8.51 Terminology for a tap.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Parts Made by Cutting Processes
FIGURE 8.52 Typical parts and shapes produced by the cutting processes described in
Section 8.9.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Milling Operations
FIGURE 8.53 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab-
milling operation, showing depth of cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc; and workpiece
speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance to reach full depth of cut.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Face-Milling Operation
FIGURE 8.54 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of

an insert in face milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional
milling; (d) dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w,
is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius. Source:
Courtesy of The Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Face-Milling Cutter
FIGURE 8.55 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Effect of Lead Angle On Undeformed Chip
FIGURE 8.56 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as the lead angle
increases, the undeformed chip thickness (and hence the thickness of the actual chip) decreases, but the length of contact
(and hence the width of the chip) increases. The insert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the increase in contact
length.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Relative Position of Cutter and Insert
FIGURE 8.57 (a) Relative position

of the cutter and insert as it first
engages the workpiece in face milling,
(b) insert positions toward the end of
cut, and (c) examples of exit angles of
insert, showing desirable (positive are
negative angle) and undesirable (zero
angle) positions. In all figures, the
cutter spindle is perpendicular to the
page.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Cutters for Straddle and Form Milling
FIGURE 8.58 Cutters for (a) straddle milling and (b) form milling.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Cutting Speeds in Milling
WORKPIECE MATERIAL CUTTING SPEED
m/min ft/min
Aluminum alloys 300-3000 1000-10,000
vast iron, gray 90-1300 300-4200
Copper alloys 90-1000 300-3300
High-temperature alloys 30-550 100-1800
Steels 60-450 200-1500
Stainless steels 90-500 300-1600
Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-1400 300-4500
Titanium alloys 40-150 130-500
Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides, ceramic, cermets, and diamond cutting tools. Speeds for
high-speed steel tools are lower than indicated.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 1 mm-8 mm (0.04 in.-0.3 in).
(c) Feeds per tooth, f, are generally in the range of 0.08 mm/rev-0.46 mm/rev (0.003 in./rev -
0.018 in./rev).
TABLE 8.11 Approximate range of recommended cutting speeds for milling operations.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Horizontal-Spindle Milling Machine
FIGURE 8.59 (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling

machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling
machine. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Internal and Surface Broaching
FIGURE 8.60 (a) Typical parts made by internal broaching. (b) Parts made by surface
broaching. The heavy lines indicate broached surfaces. Source: General Broach and
Engineering Company.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Broach Action and Terminology
FIGURE 8.61 (a) Cutting
action of a broach, showing
various features. (b)
Terminology for a broach.
FIGURE 8.62 Terminology

for a pull-type internal
broach used for enlarging
long holes.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Terminology and Types of Saw Teeth
FIGURE 8.63 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of saw teeth, staggered to provide
clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Steel Teeth and Carbide Inserts
FIGURE 8.64 (a) High-speed-steel teeth welded on a steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed
to blade teeth.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Gear Cutting
FIGURE 8.65 (a) Schematic
illustration of gear generating with
a pinion-shaped gear cutter. (b)
Schematic illustration of gear
generating in a gear shaper, using a
pinion-shaped cutter. Note that the
cutter reciprocates vertically. (c)
Gear generating with a rack-shaped
cutter. (d) Schematic illustration of
three views of gear cutting with a
hob. Source: After E. P. DeGarmo
and Society of Manufacturing
Engineers.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Horizontal-Spindle Machining Center
FIGURE 8.66 A horizontal-spindle machining center, equipped with an automatic tool

changer. Tool magazines can store 200 cutting tools. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Computer-Numerical-Control Turning Center
FIGURE 8.67 Schematic illustration of a three-turret, two-spindle computer-numerical-

control turning center. Source: Hitachi Seiki USA, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Machining Outer Bearing Races
FIGURE 8.68 Machining outer bearing races on a turning center.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Chatter Marks on a Turned Part
FIGURE 8.69 Chatter marks (right of center of photograph) on the surface of a turned part.
Source: General Electric Company.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Relative Damping Capacity
FIGURE 8.70 Relative damping capacity of gray cast iron and epoxy-granite composite
material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration, and the Horizontal scale is time.
Source: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Damping of Vibrations As a Function of Number of
Components on a Lathe
FIGURE 8.71 Damping of vibrations as a function of the number of components on a lathe.

Joints dissipate energy; thus, the greater the number of joints, the higher the damping will be.
Source: J. Peters.

Prentice Hall, 2003
Cost and Time/Piece in
Machining
FIGURE 8.72 Graphs showing (a) cost per piece and (b) time per
piece in machining. Note the optimum speeds for both cost and
time. The range between the two optimum speeds is known as the
high-efficiency machining range.

Prentice Hall, 2003
High Speed Cutting Tool
FIGURE 8.73 A high-speed tool for single-point milling, chamfering, counterboring, and
threading of holes. Source: Courtesy of Makino, Inc.

Prentice Hall, 2003

Cuttingch 08

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cuttingch 08

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 8

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.1 Examples of cutting processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process (also called

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.11 Forces acting on a cutting tool in two-dimensional cutting.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

TABLE 8.1 Data on orthogonal cutting of 4130 steel.

TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.14 Schematic illustration of

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

TABLE 8.3 Approximate specific-energy requirements in cutting operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.16 Typical temperature distribution

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.20 (a) Types of wear

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

OPERATION ALLOWABLE WEAR LAND (mm)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.25 Interface of chip (left) and rake

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.31 Hardness of various

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

TABLE 8.6 Typical range of properties of various tool materials.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparation of

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.36 Wear patterns on high-speed-steel uncoated and titanium-nitride-coated

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or diamond layer on a

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

FIGURE 8.40 Various