Discrete Structures

Chapter 2
Basic Structures: Sequences and summations
 Sequences
Definition. A sequence is a function from a subset of the set of
integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, . . .}or the set { 1, 2 , 3, . . . })
to a set S. We use the symbol an to denote the image of the integer
n. We call an a term of the sequence. Also, We use the notation {an }
to describe the sequence.
Notation. {an} is used to represent the sequence (note {} is the same
notation used for sets, so be careful). {an} represents the ordered
list a1, a2, a3, ... .
 sequences
Examples: Consider the sequence {an}
• (1) an =1/n, where n=1,2,3….. – What are the elements of the
sequence? 1, 1/2 , 1/3, 1/4, 1/5
• (2) an = n2, where n = 1,2,3... – What are the elements of
the sequence? 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ...
• (3) an = (-1)n, where n=0,1,2,3,... – Elements of the sequence?
1, -1, 1, -1, 1, ...
• (4) an = 2n, where n=0,1,2,3,... – Elements of the sequence? 1,
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...
 A geometric progression
Definition A geometric progression is a sequence of the form:
a, ar, ar2, ..., ark, where a is the initial term, and r is the
common ratio. Both a and r belong to R (real numbers).
Example:
{an } where an= ( ½ )n for n = 0,1,2,3, … members: 1,½, ¼, 1/8, ….
{bn } where an= (-1)n, for n = 0,1,2,3…… members: 1,-1,1,-1,1,-1…
{Cn } where Cn = 2 * 5n , for n = 0,1,2,3…members: 2, 10 , 50, 250, 1250
{dn } where dn = 6* (1/3)n for n = 0,1,2,3… members
 Arithmetic progression
Definition: An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form
a, a+d, a+2d, …, a+nd
where a is the initial term and d is common difference, such that
both belong to R(real number).
Example:
… ,sn= -1+4n for n=0,1,2,3•
… ,members: -1, 3, 7, 11
tn = 7 - 3n •
.…,members: 7, 4, 1, -2
 Sequences
Example: Assume the sequence: 1,3,5,7,9, ….
• What is the formula for the sequence?
• What type of progression this suggest?
Solution.
Each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term.
1, 1+2=3, 3+2=5, 5+2=7
It suggests an arithmetic progression:
a, a+d, a+2d, ……,a+nd with a=1 and d=2
an=1+2n = 1,3,5,7,9,…….
 sequences
Example: Assume the sequence: 1, 1/3, 1/9, 1/27, …
• What is the formula for sequence?
• What type of progression this suggest?
Solution.
This suggests a geometric progression: ark with
a=1 , r=1/3 , and k=0,1,2,3,4,5,….
(1/3 )k = 1, 1/3, 1/9, 1/27
 Sequences
How can we produce the terms of a sequence if the first 10
terms are 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, 47, 53, 59?
Solution.
Since it’s an arithmetic progression so it should be like this
a, a+d, a+2d, ……,a+nd where a=5 and d=6
Or we can use this
5 + 6( n - 1 ) where n=1,2,3,4,…
 Some useful sequences

• N2 1 , 4, 9, 1 6 , 25, 36, 49, 64, 8 1 , 1 00, . .

 

• N3 1 , 8, 27, 64, 125, 21 6, 343 , 512, 729, 1000, . . .

 

• N4 1 , 1 6 , 8 1 , 256, 625 , 1 296, 240 1 , 4096, 656 1 ,

• N2 2, 4, 8, 1 6 , 32, 64, 128, 256, 5 1 2, 1 024,

• 3n 3 , 9, 27, 8 1 , 243 , 729, 2 1 87, 656 1 , 1 9683 , 59049,

• n! 1 , 2, 6, 24, 1 20, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800, . .
 
 Summation
Summation of the terms of a sequence:

The variable j is referred to as the index of summation.

m is the lower limit and •
.n is the upper limit of the summation •

Example
Express the sum of the first 100 terms of the sequence {an},
where an = 1/n for n=1 , 2, 3 , . . . .
The lower limit for the index of summation is 1, and the upper limit is 100.
We write this sum as
 Summation
Example
What is the value of ?
Solution:
We have
52 + 42 + 32 + 2 2 + 12 =
25 + 6 1 + 9 + 4 + 1 = 
.5 5 =
 Summation
Example
 
What is the value of ?

= (-1)4 + (-1)5+(-1)6 + (-1)7+ (-1)8

= 1-1+1-1+1
=1
 Summation
Example

Suppose we have the sum but want the index of summation to

run between 0 and 4 rather than from 1 to 5 .

To do this, we let k = j - 1 . Then the new summation index runs from 0 to 4,
and the term j2 becomes

It is easily checked that both sums are 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 = 55.