General Microbiology

Lecture 1

Dr/ Mohammed Ramadan

Lecturer of Microbiology & Immunology
 Topics Covered
– Definition of Microbiology
– History of Microbiology
– Taxonomy
– Morphological Study of Bacteria
– Bacterial physiology
– Bacterial Metabolism
– Bacterial growth and multiplication
– Bacterial Genetics
 Microbiology

Microbiology
study of organisms too small to be seen by the
naked eye.
Microbes or Microorganisms
commonly referred to as “germs” or “bugs”
include bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, protozoa
and helminthes.
Prions (“infectious proteins”) are recent addition.
 Branches of Study

 Bacteriology study of bacteria

 Mycology study of fungi and yeast
 Virology study of viruses
 Parasitology study of parasitic protozoans and
helminthes
 Immunology study of the humoral and cellular
immune response to disease
agents and allergens
 History of Microbiology
 Recent discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
DNA in the three thousand (3000) years old Egyptian
mummies reminds us that microorganisms have been
around us for a much longer period of time.
 From 1857-1940 has been named Golden age of
microbiology. During this period, rapid advancement
spread hold mainly by Pasture & Robert Koch which
led to the establishment of microbiology as a science.
 The Pioneers of Microbiology
1. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek
2. Aristotle, John Needham, Abbe Spallanzani
3. Louis Pasteur
4. Robert Koch
5. Hans Christian Gram
6. Ernest Abbe
7. Joseph Lister
8. Petri
 The Pioneers of Microbiology

1. Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek: at 1676 developed a single

lens microscope
2. Aristotle around 1700 claimed the spontaneous
generation theory. Around 1745 John Needham
supported this theory. At 1776 Abbe Spallanzani
opposed this theory, as when he sealed the container
containing meat broth after boiling, the meat does not
develop microorganisms.
 The Pioneers of Microbiology
3- Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) Father of microbiology:
a- Destroyed the spontaneous generation theory.
b- Discovered the process of pasteurization.
c- Reported that chemical changes occurring during
fermentation.
d- Demonstrated that when healthy silk worms were separated
from the sick ones infected with microorganisms they were not
diseased.
e- Discovered vaccines for anthrax and rabies.
4. Ernest Abbe: At 1880 Developed microscope lenses and
developed the oil immersion lens.
 The Pioneers of Microbiology
5- Robert Koch (1843 -1910):
a- Developed solid artificial medium.
b- Developed staining of microorganisms.
c- Developed methods for evaluation of disinfectants.
d- Isolated Anthrax bacilli in pure form.
e- Discovered tubercle bacilli, which cause T. B.
f- Studied cholera.
g- Published "Koch's postulate.
 The Pioneers of Microbiology
6- Hans Christian Gram: In 1884 introduced the
differential staining method now named in his honor,
the Gram stain.
7- Joseph Lister: Father of antiseptic surgery. He was
the first to cover wounds by dressing soaked in Phenol
and used disinfectants in surgical rooms.
8- Petri: A Student of Koch who invented Petri dish.
 The Microbial World

There are two different groups of prokaryotes:

1- Eubacteria: this is the typical form of
prokaryotes
2- Archaebacteria: differ from the typical form
Differences between bacteria
and fungi
 Differences between bacteria
and fungi
  Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type Bacteria Fungi, plant

Nucleus No enclosing nuclear Enclosed by a nuclear

membrane membrane
No Yes
DNA with histones
One Multiple
Chromosome
Binary fission Budding
Division
Membrane-bound organelles No Yes
Chloroplates  Absent  Present
Ribosome size 70S 80S
Cell wall Contain peptidoglycan Cello chitin, cellulose
 Basis of Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria have been classified into phylum, class,

orders, families, genera and species.

Within a species, bacteria differing from each other in

minor respects are variously designated as groups,
types, or varieties. Some of these properties may be

characteristic of particular strains.

Example
 Taxonomic classification
1. Numerical classification: Bacteria arranged in
groups according to their similarity coefficients.
2. DNA composition: according to G & C content
3. DNA homology: according to homology in their
DNA base sequence.
4. Ribosomal RNA sequencing: similarities in
oligonucleotides derived from rRNA
 Koch Postulates

1-The organism must be isolated from every patient with the disease.
2-The organism must be isolated in pure form in all cases of the
disease.
3-The pure organism must cause the disease in a healthy susceptible
animal.
4-The organism must be recovered from the inoculated animal.
5- Specific immune response can be elicited against this
microorganism in the body of infected host.
 Morphological Study of Bacteria

1- Size of the Bacterial Cell:

The small size of bacteria allows bacteria for more rapid growth
rates than eukaryotic cells.
- 0.2 to 8 micrometers(1–2µm in diameter to those that are >
0.5mm in diameter).
- Degree of magnification (400–1000) is necessary to observe
them.
- Thiomargarita namibiensis.
 Morphological Study of Bacteria
2- Shape of the Bacterial Cell
cocci, bacilli and spirals. Some bacteria are
variable in shape and are said to be pleomorphic.
The shape of a cell affects its behavior and
stability.
- Thus cocci, have more resistance to drying.
- Rods have more surfaces exposed per unit volume
than cocci do and thus can more readily take up
nutrients from dilute solutions.
Shape of the Bacterial Cell
 Morphological Study of Bacteria
3- Arrangement of the Bacterial Cell
When the bacterial cell divides, the two daughter cells may at
once separate, or they may remain attached to one another by the
cell membrane. It may occur in clusters (e.g. Staphylococci) some
in pairs (diplococci) e.g. (Pneumococci) and others occurring in
chains e.g. (Streptococci). Sometimes the two daughter cells may

be parallel to each other or at angle as in the diphtheria bacillus.

Arrangement of the Bacterial Cell
 Bacteria
Bacterial diversity
 There is no natural environment that is free from bacteria
 Bacterial diversity can be seen in terms of
 variation in cell size and shape (morphology),
 adaptation to environmental extremes, survival strategies, and
metabolic capabilities.
 Such diversity allows bacteria to grow in a multiplicity of
environments ranging from
 hot sulphur springs (65°C) to deep freezers (–20°C), from high (pH
1) to low (pH 13) acidity and high (0.7 M) to low osmolarity (water).
 Bacteria
 Bacteria are widely distributed in nature, and
according to their habitat and way of living they are
described as:
1) Saprophytic. 2) Parasitic.
 Parasitic bacteria are classified into:
1. Pathogenic.
2. Commensals (i.e. normal flora).
 Structure of the Bacterial Cell

• Invariant Structure VS Variant Structure

 Bacterial Cell Wall
Function of cell wall

• Maintenance of the shape and integrity of the bacterial cell.

• It is also an obvious target for antibiotics that can attack and kill
bacteria without harm to the host.
• It provides a strong, rigid structural component that can
withstand the osmotic pressures caused by high chemical
concentrations of inorganic ions in the cell.
 Bacterial Cell Wall
Chemical composition of the cell wall

NAG NAM NAG NAM

PEP PEP
Glycine bridge

PEP PEP

NAG NAM NAG NAM

 Synthesis of the cell wall
1- Activation of NAG & NAM by binding to a carrier UDP.
2- Synthesis of linking pentapeptide
3-NAM-PEP complex is transferred from UDP to membrane bound
BPP
4- The repeat unit is carried by BPP to the outer surface of
membrane where it attaches to a free end of existing peptidoglycan.
5-the PEP side chains are cross linked with release of terminal
alanine (by transpeptidation reaction where the free end of amino
group of pentaglycine residue replaces the terminal D-alanine of
neighboring pentapeptide).
 Bacterial Cell Wall

Chemical composition of the cell wall

 Functions & medical importance
of the Cell Wall
1. Its a rigid structure that maintains shape of bacteria.
2. Protects the cytoplasmic membrane from bursting in hypotonic
solutions (i.e. it is osmotically insensitive)
3. Determine the reaction to Gram stain.
4. Play a role in cell division by the formation of transverse
septum.

5. is a good target for antimicrobial drugs, such as penicillins and

cephalosporins
 Functions & medical importance
of the Cell Wall

Teichoic acid of Gram positive bacteria

1. Is highly immunogenic it induces the production of TNF-α
and IL-1 by macrophages.
2. It participates in toxic shock
3. It may mediate adherence of some organisms to mucosal
cells.
4. It gives negative charge to cell wall
5. It regulates cell enlargement during cell division by
regulation of autolysins.
6. Membrane teichoic acid anchors cell wall to cell membrane
 Functions & medical importance
of the Cell Wall
 Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of Gram negative
organisms
1. Lipid fraction: which is called lipid A is extremely
toxic to the body and is called the endotoxin. It's
released only when the bacteria are lysed, and is
responsible for the fever, hypotension and shock i.e.
endotoxic shock.
2. Polysaccharide fraction: represents a major surface
antigen called somatic (O) antigen which is
immunogenic and used for serotyping.
 Functions & medical importance
of the Cell Wall
 Outer membrane of Gram negative organisms
it contains protein channels i.e. porins that allow passive
diffusion of low molecular weight particles as sugars,
amino acids….etc. large molecules of antibiotics
penetrate it very slowly that accounts for relatively high
antibiotic resistance of Gram negative bacteria.
 Functions & medical importance
of the Cell Wall
 Periplasmic space
 it is the site, in some species, of the enzymes
called B-lactamases that degrade penicillins and
other B-lactam drugs which is a mechanism of
resistance to these drugs.
Since peptidoglycan is present in bacteria but
not in human cell it is a good target for
antimicrobial drugs, such as penicillins and
cephalosporins that inhibit its synthesis.
Cell Wall
Cell Wall
Cell Wall
 Cell Wall
Table (2): Difference between Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria

Polymer Gram positive Gram negative

Peptidoglycan More than one layer Only one layer

Teichoic acid Present Absent

Polysaccharide Present Absent

Lipopolysaccharide Absent Present

Lipoprotein Absent Present

Protein Absent Present

 Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Approximately 80% water and contains enzymes Cytoplasmic membrane
It's a semi-permeable double-layered structure, composed of phospholipids and protein.
Its main function is to maintain a constant environment within the interior of the cell by
controlled transport mechanisms including:
a) Selective permeability to different molecules.
b) Active transport of ions (H+, Na+, K+, etc.) and nutrients to achieve osmotic balance and a
pool of nutrients.
c) It also supplies the cell with energy through electron transport and oxidative
phosphorylation i.e. site of respiration.
 Cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic membrane
d) Excretion of hydrolytic exoenzymes which degrade the different nutrients into subunits
small enough to penetrate the cytoplasmic membrane.
e) Excretion of pathogenicity proteins, e.g. IgA protease, some exotoxins etc.
f) It provides enzymes and lipid carriers for cell wall synthesis.
g) It plays a role in DNA replication.