MATERIALS

SCIENCE
BONDING AND
PROPERTIES
GENG 231
Fall 2020
Prof. Dr. Elsadig Mahdi
 CHAPTER 2:
BONDING AND PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

 Chemistry: Fundamentals
 Atomic structure
 What promotes bonding?

 What types of bonds are there?

 What properties are inferred from bonding?
 Chemistry: Fundamentals
 Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons.
 Neutrons are neutral, but protons and electrons are
electrically charged: protons have a relative charge of +1 and
electrons have a relative charge of -1.
 All substances are made of tiny particles called atoms.
 An element is a substance that is made of only one sort of
atoms. There are about 100 different elements.
 These are shown in the Periodic Table, which is a chart
with all the elements arranged in a particular way.
 The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods
and the vertical columns are called groups.
 The elements in a group have similar properties to each
other.
 Dmitri Mendeleev!
Mendeleev made the Periodic Table !
 What is the Periodic Table?
 Shows all known elements in the universe.
 Organizes the elements by chemical properties.
How do you read the Periodic Table?
 What is the Atomic Number?
 The number of protons found in
the nucleus of an atom
Or
 The number of electrons
surrounding the nucleus of an atom
 What is the SYMBOL?
An abbreviation of the element name.

What is the Atomic Weight?

The number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

What is the difference between atomic weight and atomic number?

How do I find the number of protons, electrons,
and neutrons in an element using the Periodic
Table ?
 # of PROTONS = ATOMIC NUMBER

 # of ELECTRONS = ATOMIC NUMBER

 # of NEUTRONS = ATOMIC MASS - ATOMIC

NUMBER
 Periodic Table: Metals and non-metals

 The metals are shown on the left of the periodic table, and
the non-metals are shown on the right.
 The dividing line between metals and non-metals is shown in
red.
 You can see that most of the elements are metals.
 Summary
 Periodic Table: Map of the Building block of matter
 Type: Metal, metalloid and Nonmetal
 Groupings: Representative or main, transition and
Lanthanide/Actanides
 Family: Elements in the same column have similar
chemical property because of similar valence electrons
 Alkali, Alkaline, chalcogens, halogens, noble gases
 Period: Elements in the same row have valence electrons
in the same shell.
 Chemical symbols
 The atoms of each element are represented by a chemical
symbol.
 This usually consists of one or two different letters, but
sometimes three letters are used for newly discovered
elements.
 For example, O represents an oxygen atom, and Na
represents a sodium atom.
 Atomic structure
 All substances are made from tiny particles called atoms.
 An atom has a small central nucleus made up of smaller
sub-atomic particles called protons and neutrons.
 The nucleus is surrounded by even smaller sub-atomic
particles called electrons.

• Protons and electrons have an electrical charge.

• Both have the same size of electrical charge, but
the proton is positive and the electron negative.
• Neutrons are neutral.
• The number of electrons in an atom is equal to
the number of protons in its nucleus.
• This means atoms have no overall electrical
charge.
 What is an Element?
 A substance composed of a single kind
of atom.

 Cannot be broken down into another

substance by chemical or physical
means.
 What is a Compound?

A substance in which two or more different elements are

CHEMICALLY bonded together.
 What is a Mixture?
Two or more substances that are mixed together but are NOT
chemically bonded.

Differentiate between mixture and compound?

 WHY Study Atomic Structure and
Interatomic Bonding
 An important reason to have an understanding of inter-
atomic bonding in solids is that, in some instances, the
type of bond allows us to explain a material’s properties.
 For example, consider carbon, which may exist as both
graphite and diamond.
 Graphite is relatively soft and has a ‘‘greasy’’ feel to it.
 Diamond is the hardest known material.
 This dramatic disparity in properties is directly attributable
to a type of inter-atomic bonding found in graphite that
does not exist in diamond
The type of bond allows us to explain a material’s properties, which significantly
affected ………………………of the materials.
 Example Diamond and Graphite
Carbon alone forms the familiar substances and diamond.
Both graphite and diamond are made only of carbon atoms.
Graphite is very soft and slippery. Diamond is the hardest
substance known to man. If both are made only of carbon
what gives them different properties?

Diamond Graphite
Graphite: While there are strong
covalent bonds between carbon
atoms in each layer, there are only
weak forces between layers. This
allows layers of carbon to slide over
each other in graphite
Diamond: Each carbon atom is the
same distance to each of its
neighboring carbon atoms. In this rigid
network atoms cannot move. This
explains why diamonds are so hard and
have such a high melting point.
 Multiple Choice Questions
Graphite can be described as
a) hard and crystalline
b) soft and slippery
c) a dark liquid
d) made only of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Diamond is
a) made only of carbon and hydrogen atoms
b) the hardest substance know to man
c) soft and slippery
d) clear and brittle
What makes diamond so hard?
a) diamond has a crystal structure similar to ice
b) diamond is made up of only carbon atoms
c) the C-C bonds all have different bond lengths
d) a rigid network of atoms that cannot move
 Multiple Choice Questions
Which statement best describes why graphite is soft?
a) graphite is made up of only carbon atoms
b) graphite is layered
c) graphite has a low melting point
d) none of the above
Which of the following statements is not correct
a) both carbon and diamond are made of only carbon atoms
b) graphite has only weak forces between its layers
c) graphite and diamond have the same density
d) in diamond each carbon is the same distance to each of its neighboring
carbon atoms
 Atomic number and mass number
• The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons it
contains.
• All the atoms of a particular element have the same atomic
number (number of protons).
• The atoms of different elements have different numbers of
protons.
• For example, all oxygen atoms have 8 protons and all
sodium atoms have 11 protons.
• The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons
and neutrons it contains.
• The mass number of an atom is never smaller than the
atomic number. It can be the same, but is usually bigger.
Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
• The atomic mass, gives the mass of an atom, which
represents the tiniest piece of elementary matter.
• Each chemical element is characterized by the number of
protons in the nucleus, or the atomic number (Z).
• For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic
number also equals the number of electrons.
• This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1 for
hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest of the naturally
occurring elements.
 Atomic Structure fundamentals
• Atom – electrons – 9.11 x 10-31 kg
• Nucleus {protons; neutrons} 1.67 x 10-27 kg
• Atomic number Z = # of protons in nucleus of atom
= # of electrons of neutral species
• Atomic mass A; The atomic mass, as the name cleverly
suggests, gives the mass of an atom, allegedly the tiniest
piece of elementary matter
• Atomic mass unit= amu = 1/12 mass of 12C; (A=12.00000
for 12C)
• A ≅ Z + N; N=number of neutron
• Atomic wt = wt of 6.023 x 1023 molecules or atoms
• 1 amu/atom = 1g/mol
 Full chemical symbols
• You need to be able to calculate the number of each sub-
atomic particle in an atom if you are given its atomic
number and its mass number.
The full chemical symbol for
an element shows its mass
number at the top, and its The full symbol for a chlorine
atomic number at the bottom.
This symbol tells you that the The symbol also tells you that the total
chlorine atom has 17 protons. number of protons and neutrons in the
It will also have 17 electrons, chlorine atom is 35. Note that you can
because the number of protons work out the number of neutrons from the
and electrons in an atom is the mass number and atomic number. In this
same. example, it is 35 – 17 = 18 neutrons.
 Electronic structure
• The electrons in an atom occupy energy levels.
• These are also called shells.
• Each electron in an atom is found in a particular energy
level.
• The lowest energy level (innermost shell) fills with
electrons first.
• Each energy level can only hold a certain number of
electrons before it becomes full.
• The first energy level can hold a maximum of two
electrons, the second energy level a maximum of eight,
and so on.
 Electronic structure
Electrons in the first three energy levels for the elements
with atomic numbers 1 to 20
Energy level or shell Maximum number of electrons
first 2
second 8
third 8

Writing an electronic structure

The electronic structure of an atom is written using numbers
to represent the electrons in each energy level.
For example, for sodium (11) this is 2,8,1 – showing that
there are:
2 electrons in the first energy level
8 electrons in the second energy level
1 electron in the third energy level.
 Electronic structure diagrams

In these drawings:
• the nucleus is shown as a black spot
• each energy level is shown as a circle
around the nucleus
• each electron is shown by a dot or a cross
 Atomic model
• Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems
whose dimensions are close to or below the atomic scale, such
as molecules, atoms, electrons, protons and other subatomic
particles.
• Bohr atomic model: Electrons are assumed to revolve around
the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its
orbital.
• Quantum-mechanical principle: the energies of electrons are
quantized---electrons are permitted to have only specific
values of energy. Energy levels or states are separated by
finite energies.
 BOHR ATOM
orbital electrons:
n = principal
quantum number
n=3 2 1

Nucleus: Z = # protons
= 1 for hydrogen to 94 for plutonium
N = # neutrons
Atomic mass A ≈ Z + N
 Electronic structure Electronic structure
Element Symbol
(written) (drawn)

lithium Li 2,1

fluorine F 2,7

chlorine Cl 2,8,7

calcium Ca 2,8,8,2
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
• A fundamental rule in subatomic physics which says that
no two electrons, can occupy the same quantum state; it
was formulated by the German physicist Wolfgang Pauli in
1925.
• Thus, s, p, d, and f subshells may each accommodate,
respectively, a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons as shown
in Table BELOW.
 ELECTRON ENERGY STATES
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.

4p
n=4 3d
Increasing energy

4s
n=3 3p
3s
n=2 2p
2s
n=1 1s
 STABLE ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Stable electron configurations...
• have complete s and p subshells
• tend to be unreactive.

Z Element Configuration
2 He 1s 2
10 Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
18 Ar 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3 s 2 3p 6
36 Kr 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3 s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4 s 2 4p 6
 SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
• Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4 6 (stable)

• Why? Valence (outer) shell usually not filled completely.

 THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Columns: Similar Valence Structure

inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e

accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e
Metal

Nonmetal
H He
Li Be Intermediate Ne
O F
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• Ranges from 0.7 to 4.0,
• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
H He
2.1 -
Li Be F Ne
1.0 1.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Smaller electronegativity Larger electronegativity

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd
edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell
University.
 Atomic bonding in solids
• In order to understand the why materials behave like they do
and why they differ in properties, it is necessary that one
should look at atomic level.
• The study primarily concentrates on two issues: what made the
atoms to cluster together, and how atoms are arranged. As
mentioned in earlier chapter, atoms are bound to each other by
number of bonds.
• These inter-atomic bonds are primarily of two kinds: Primary
bonds and Secondary bonds.
 Ionic compounds
• Ionic bonds form when a metal reacts with a non-metal.
Metals form positive ions; non-metals form negative ions.
Ionic bonds are the electro-static-forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.
Properties of ionic compounds
• High melting and boiling points - Ionic bonds are very
strong - a lot of energy is needed to break them. So ionic
compounds have high melting and boiling points.
• Conductive when liquid - Ions are charged particles, but
ionic compounds can only conduct electricity if their ions
are free to move. Ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity when they are solid - only when dissolved in
water or melted.
 IONIC BONDING
• Occurs between + and - ions.
• Requires electron transfer.
• Large difference in electronegativity required.
• Example: NaCl

Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron

Na (cat-ion) + - Cl (an-ion i.e.

Positive charge Coulombic negative charge)
stable Attraction stable
 Ionic Bonding: NaCl

• The oppositely charged ions are arranged in a regular way to

form giant ionic lattices.
• Ionic compounds often form crystals as a result. The illustration
shows part of a sodium chloride (NaCl) ionic lattice.
 EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 Cs Cl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

 Properties of ionic compounds
Ionic compound Properties
High melting point: 800ºC
Sodium chloride, Non-conductive in its solid state, but
NaCl when dissolved in water or molten NaCl
will conduct electricity.
Higher melting point than sodium
chloride: around 2,800ºC. This is
because its Mg2+ and O2- ions have a
greater number of charges, so they
Magnesium oxide, form stronger ionic bonds than the Na+
MgO and Cl- ions in sodium chloride.
Because magnesium oxide stays solid at
such high temperatures, it remains non-
conductive, therefore, is used for high-
temperature electrical insulation.
Bonding Energies and Melting Temperatures for Various
Substances
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES
• The principles of atomic bonding are best illustrated by
considering the interaction between two isolated atoms as they
are brought into close proximity from an infinite separation.
• At large distances, the interactions are negligible, but as the
atoms approach, each exerts forces on the other.
• These forces are of two types, attractive (FA) and repulsive
(FR) , and the magnitude of each is a function of the separation
or interatomic distance.
• The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both
attractive and repulsive components; that is
FN = FA + FR
 COVALENT BONDING
Covalent form between non-metal atoms. Each bond consists
of a shared pair of electrons, and is very strong. Covalently
bonded substances fall into two main types
1. simple molecules and
2. giant covalent structures.
 Simple molecules
A molecule of carbon dioxide
These contain only a few atoms held together by strong covalent
bonds. An example is carbon dioxide (CO2), the molecules of which
contain one atom of carbon bonded with two atoms of oxygen.

Properties of simple molecular substances

1. Low melting and boiling points - This is because the weak
intermolecular forces break down easily.
2. Non-conductive - Substances with a simple molecular structure
do not conduct electricity. This is because they do not have any
free electrons or an overall electric charge.
 COVALENT BONDING
• Requires shared electrons
• Example: CH4 shared electrons
H
C: has 4 valence e, from carbon atom
CH 4
needs 4 more
H: has 1 valence e, H C H
needs 1 more
shared electrons
Electronegativities H from hydrogen
are comparable. atoms
 EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING
H2 O

column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
Si C - Cl 2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs

• Molecules with nonmetals

• Molecules with metals and nonmetals
• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
• Compound solids (about column IVA)
 Covalent bonding –
giant covalent structures
• Giant covalent structures contain a lot of non-metal atoms, each
joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds.
• The atoms are usually arranged into giant regular lattices -
extremely strong structures because of the many bonds involved.
• The graphic shows the molecular structure of diamond and
graphite: two allotropes of carbon, and of silica (silicon dioxide).
 Properties of giant covalent structures
• Very high melting points - Substances with giant covalent
structures have very high melting points, because a lot of
strong covalent bonds must be broken. Graphite, for
example, has a melting point of more than 3,600ºC.
• Variable conductivity - Diamond does not conduct
electricity. Graphite contains free electrons, so it does
conduct electricity. Silicon is semi-conductive - that is,
midway between non-conductive and conductive.
 Metallic bonding - higher
• Giant structures with free electrons
• Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer
shells of the metal atoms are free to move.
• The metallic bond is the force of attraction between these
free electrons and metal ions.
• Metallic bonds are strong, so metals can maintain a regular
structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.

• Metals are good conductors of

electricity and heat, because the free
electrons carry a charge or heat energy
through the metal.
• The free electrons allow metal atoms to
slide over each other, so metals are
malleable and ductile.
 METALLIC BONDING
• Arises from a sea of donated valence electrons
(1, 2, or 3 from each atom).

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +
• Primary bond for metals and their alloys
SECONDARY BONDING: Van der Waals bonding

• weak bonds in comparison with other forms

of bonding (~10 kJ/mol)
• evident between all atoms, including inert
gases and especially between covalently
bonded molecules.
• Bonds are created through both atomic and
molecular dipoles
 SECONDARY BONDING: Hydrogen bonding

• Special type of secondary bond between molecules with

permanent dipoles and hydrogen in the compound.
• Ex: HF, H2O, NH3
• These secondary bonds can have strengths as high as
~50 kJ/mol and will cause increases in melting
temperature above those normally expected.
 SECONDARY BONDING
Arises from interaction between dipoles
• Fluctuating dipoles
asymmetric electron ex: liquid H 2
clouds H2 H2

+ - secondary + - H H H H
secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 6e. bonding

• Permanent dipoles-molecule induced

Adapted from Fig. 2.14,
secondary
-general case: + - bonding
+ - Callister 6e.

secondary Adapted from Fig. 2.14,

-ex: liquid HCl H Cl bonding H Cl Callister 6e.

-ex: polymer
 SUMMARY: BONDING
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)

Variable Directional
Covalent large-Diamond semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)

Variable
Metallic large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Directional
Secondary smallest inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
BONDING FORCES AND
ENERGIES
 BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES
• The principles of atomic bonding are best illustrated by
considering the interaction between two isolated atoms as they
are brought into close proximity from an infinite separation.
• At large distances, the interactions are negligible, but as the
atoms approach, each exerts forces on the other.
• These forces are of two types, attractive (FA) and repulsive
(FR) , and the magnitude of each is a function of the separation
or interatomic distance.
• The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both
attractive and repulsive components; that is
FN = FA + FR

• Then a state of equilibrium exists, when FN =0

 Columbic force
 The attractive bonding forces are columbic; that is, positive
and negative ions, by virtue of their net electrical charge,
attract one another.
 For two isolated ions, the attractive energy EA is a function of
the interatomic distance according to
A
EA = 
r
 An analogous equation for the repulsive energy is
B
ER = n
r
 A, B, and n are constants whose values depend on the
particular ionic system. The value of n is approximately 8.
 Farad and Permittivity
 The farad (symbol: F) is the SI unit of capacitance.
 Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge.
 It is named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.
 Work-done or energy can be measured in Joules and charge is
measured in Coulombs so the electrical potential can be measured in
Joules per Coulomb which has been defined as a volt.
𝐶 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏) 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 2 𝐶2
𝐹 ( 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 )= = = = =
𝑉 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑡) 𝑉 𝐽 𝐽 𝑁𝑚
𝐶
 Permittivity is the measure of the resistance that is encountered when
forming an electric field in a medium.
 Columbic force
 The constant A in Equation is

Farads per meter

 0 is the permittivity of a vacuum 8.85×10-12 F/m,

 Z1 and Z2 are the valences of the two ion types,
 e is the electronic charge
 Sometimes bonding energies are expressed per atom or per
ion. Under these circumstances the electron volt (eV) is a
conveniently small unit of energy.
 It is, by definition, the energy imparted to an electron as it
falls through an electric potential of one volt.
 The joule equivalent of the electron volt is as follows:
1.602×10-19 J= 1 eV.
The magnitude of the attractive force
varies with the distance, as represented
schematically.

The net curve, which is again the sum of the

other two, has a potential energy trough or
well around its minimum.
Here, the same equilibrium spacing, r0,
corresponds to the separation distance at the
minimum of the potential energy curve.
The bonding energy for these two atoms,
E0, corresponds to the energy at this
minimum point; it represents the energy
that would be required to separate these two
atoms to an infinite separation.
Example-1
Calculate the force of attraction between a Ca2+ and an O2-
ion the centers of which are separated by a distance of 1.25
nm.
Take attractive energy as E =  A
A
r
Given:
Z1 =2=Z2
R=1.25nm
Required:
Force of attraction (FA)
Example-1: Solution
The attractive force FA between two ions is just the derivative
with respect to the interatomic separation of the attractive
energy expression
A
EA = 
r
 A
d  
dE A r A
FA = =  = 2
dr dr r

A
Z1e Z 2e 
4 o
(2)( 2)1.6 x 10 C
19 2

FA =  = 5.89  10-10 N
(4)( ) 8.85 x 10 F / m) 1.25 x 10 m 
12 9 2
Example 2
The net potential energy between two adjacent ions, may be
represented by A B
E N = -  (n )
r r
Calculate the bonding energy in terms of the parameters A, B,
and n using the following procedure:
1. Differentiate EN with respect to r, and then set the
resulting expression equal to zero, since the curve of
versus r is a minimum at E0.
2. Solve for r in terms of A, B, and n, which yields r0 , the
equilibrium interionic spacing.
3. Determine the expression for E0 by substitution of r0 into
given Equation (i.e. EN)
 Example 2: Solution
1. Differentiation of (EN) Equation gives:
dE N A nB
= (1 + 1)  (n + 1) = 0
dr r r
2. Now, solving for r (= r0)
1/(1 - n)
A nB  A
2
= (n + 1)  ro =  
ro ro  nB 

3. Substitution for r0 into EN Equation and solving for E (= E0)

A B
Eo =  + n 
ro ro
A B
= 1/(1 - n)
+ n/(1 - n)
 A  A
   
 nB   nB 
 PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
• Elastic modulus, E cross
sectional
length, Lo
area A o Elastic modulus
undeformed
L F DL
=E
Ao Lo
deformed F

• E ~ curvature at ro
Energy

unstretched length
ro E is larger if Eo is larger.
r
smaller Elastic Modulus

larger Elastic Modulus

 PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: a
• Coefficient of thermal expansion, a
length, Lo Coefficient of thermal expansion
unheated, T 1
L DL
= a (T2 -T1 )
heated, T 2 Lo

Energy

ro
r a is larger if Eo is smaller.
larger 

small er 
Class Exercise
Draw the dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net energy
on interatomic separation for Material with
1. High strength
2. Moderate strength
3. Low strength