CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
TO
OPERATING SYSTEM
Topics

 Describe the definition of OS.

 Identify the basic functions of OS.
 Describe the various type of OS structure.
 Describe various architecture of OS used in different platforms.
 Identify various product of OS.
 Describe the following concepts in relation to OS.
 Describe the components of OS.
 Describe the interaction by using graphical representation between applications and the
OS.
 Identify the different interfaces of OS.
 Describe the relationship between system calls and API.
 OS IS THE SOUL
DEFINITION OF OPERATING SYSTEM OF
 A program that acts as an intermediary THE COMPUTER
between a user and the computer hardware

 An operating system, or OS, is a software

program that enables the computer
hardware to communicate and operate with
the computer software. Without a computer
operating system, a computer would be
useless
 OS can also be considered to be
managers of the resources. An OS
determines which computer resources
will be utilized for solving which
problem and the order in which they will
be used

 Software controlling the overall operation of a multipurpose

computer system, including such tasks as memory allocation, input
and output distribution, interrupt processing, and job scheduling.
 Cont…

 Software program that controls the hardware.

 Definition of an OS can be seen in 4 aspects:
1) A group of program that acts as an intermediary between a user and the computer hardware
2) Controls and co-ordinates the use of computer resources among various application
programs and user
3) Acts as a manager
4) Allow the program to communicate with one another
MAIN RESPONSIBILITY OF OS
3 main responsibilities of OS:
1) Perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the
keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track
of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.
2) Ensure that different programs and users running at the same
time do not interfere with each other.
3) Provide a software platform on top of which other programs
(i.e., application software) can run.
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF OS
5 Basic Functions of OS

Managing Provide a User Running

Resources Interface Application

Support for Control to the

Built-In Utility Computer
Programs Hardware
1) Managing Resources

 These programs coordinate all the computer’s resources including

keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, storage devices and memory.
 An operating system creates a file structure on the computer hard drive
where user data can be stored and retrieved. When a file is saved, the
operating system saves it, attaches a name to it, and remembers where it
put the file for future use.
 The way an operating system organizes information into files is called the
file system. Most operating systems use a hierarchical file system, which
organizes files into directories (folders) under a tree structure.
 The beginning of the directory system is called the root directory.
Screenshot of tree structure when using Windows Explorer.
2) Providing a user interface

 Users interact with application programs and computer hardware through a

user interface. Almost all operating systems today provide a windows-like
Graphical User Interface (GUI) in which graphic objects called icons are
used to represent commonly used features.
3) Running applications

 These programs load and run applications such as word processors and
spreadsheets. Most operating systems support multitasking, or the ability to
run more than one application at a time.
 When a user requests a program, the operating system locates the
application and loads it into the primary memory or RAM of the computer.
 As more programs are loaded, the operating system must allocate the
computer resources.
4) Support for built-in utility programs

 The operating system uses utility programs for maintenance and

repairs.
 Utility programs help identify problems, locate lost files, repair
damaged files, and backup data. The figure here shows the progress
of the Disk Defragmenter, which is found in Programs > Accessories
> System Tools.
5) Control to the computer hardware

 The operating system sits between the programs and the Basic Input
Output System (BIOS).
 The BIOS controls the hardware. All programs that need hardware
resources must go through the operating system.
 The operating system can either access the hardware through the
BIOS or through the device drivers.
 OS STRUCTURE

1. Monolithic
2. Layered
3. Microkernel
4. Networked & Distributed
 1) Monolithic

¨ This system considered as “ The big mess” because this structure is no

structure actually
 The components of monolithic system are unorganized

¨ Any module can call any other module without any reservation.
¨ The system is a collection of procedures
¨ Each procedure can call any other procedure
¨ No information hiding
¨ A system call interface (main program, sys calls, utility functions)
¨ Example system : Linux, Windows, CP/M
(Control Program for Microcomputers) & MS-DOS
 Cont. Monolithic

 Pros
1) Shared kernel space
2) Good performance

 Cons
1) No information hiding
2) Inflexible
3) Chaotic
4) Difficult to understand
 Monolithic Operating System

¨When a user mode program calls a system service, the processor traps the call and switches
the calling thread to kernel mode.
¨ Completion of system service, switches the thread back to the user mode, by the OS and
allows the caller to continue.
 A simple structuring model for a monolithic system

 A main program that invokes the requested service procedure.

 A set of service procedures that carry out the system calls.
 A set of utility procedures that help the services procedures.
 2) Layered

• Generalization of previous scheme

• Organization into a hierarchy of layers
• Layer n+1 uses services (exclusively)
supported by layer n
• Easier to extend and evolve
The OS is divided into a number of layers (levels), each
built on top of lower layers.
¨This system had 6 layers.

The Structure of the THE (Dijkstra,1968) operating system

¨ Layer 0 dealt with allocation of the processor, switching between processes when
interrupts occurred or timers expired. Layer 0 provided the basic multiprogramming
of the CPU.

¨ Layer 1 did the memory management. It allocated space for processes in main
memory and on a 512k word drum used for holding parts of processes (pages)for
which there was no room in main memory. The layer 1 software took care of making
sure pages were brought into memory whenever they were needed.

¨ Layer 2 handled communication between each process and the operator console.
Above this layer each process effectively had its own operator console.

¨ Layer 3 took care of managing the I/O devices and buffering the information
streams to and from them.

¨ Layer 4 was where the user programs were found. They did not have to worry
about process, memory, console, or I/O management.

¨Layer 5 The system operator process was located in layer 5.

¨Example system: VAX /VMS, MULTICS, UNIX
 3) Microkernel

• Moves as much as possible from the kernel into “user” space

• Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
• Benefits:
- easier to extend a microkernel
- easier to port the operating system to new architectures
- more reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
- more secure (a server crashing in userspace)
• Not clear what should go into the microkernel
• Example: Mach, QNX, NT, L4
Monolithic vs. Microkernel

• Monolithic tend to be easier to design, therefore faster

development cycle and more potential for growth

• Monolithic tend to be more efficient due to use of shared kernel

memory (instead of IPC)
– However, very efficient micro kernels have been designed in
research and laboratory settings

• Microkernel tend to be used for embedded systems (e.g. robotic,

medical etc.)

• In Microkernel, Many OS components reside in their own, private

protected address space (not possibly in Monolithic designs)
 Monolithic Microkernal
   
1. easier to design, therefore faster 1.Micro. tend to be used for embedded
development cycle and more systems (e.g.,.robotic, medical etc.)
potential for growth (see Linux).  
  2. Many OS components reside in their
2. more efficient due to use of shared own, private protected address space
kernel memory. (not possibly in Monolithic designs)

3. Functionality of the OS is invoked 3. Microkernal provide minimal

with simple function calls within the process and memory management,
kernel, which is one large program. and a communications facility.
4. Communication between
4. It runs every basic system service
components of the OS is provided by
like process and memory message passing
management, interrupt handling and 5. Communication takes place
I/O communication, file system, etc. between user modules using message
passing
in kernel space.
 
5. This system considered as “ The
 4) Network

 A network operating system (NOS) is a software program that controls other

software and hardware that runs on a network.

 It also allows multiple computers, also known as network computers, to

communicate with one main computer and each other, so as to share
resources, run applications, and send messages, among other things.

 A computer network can consist of a wireless network, local area network

(LAN), a wide area network (WAN), or even two or three computer networks.

 The heart of any of these networks, however, is the network operating

system.
– Designed to work on network servers

– Such machines often have multiple processors

and fault-tolerance built into them

– High level of reliability is required

– Eg. Windows NT Server, Windows Server 2003,

Unix/Linux for servers,Novell Netware
 Distributed

An operating system which manages a collection of independent

computers and makes them appear to the users of the system as a single
computer.
 ARCHITECTURE OF OS USED IN
DIFFERENT PLATFORMS

1. Single-processor systems
 System that execute the one process at the time and the
next job when process is completed.
 A single processor is one which the system has single
CPU. In a single processor system there will never be more
than one running process.
 If there are more processes, the rest will have to wait until
the CPU is free.
Cont…

A uniprocessor system is defined as

a computer system that has a single
central processing unit that is used
to execute computer tasks.

 Mostdesktop computers are now

shipped with multiprocessing
architectures.
 2. Multiprocessor systems

 Multiprocessor OS refers to the use of two or more central

processing units (CPU) within a single computer system.

 These multiple CPUs are in a close communication sharing

the computer bus, memory and other peripheral devices.

 These systems are referred as tightly coupled systems.

3. Clustered systems

 Cluster consists of a set of loosely connected or tightly connected

computers that work together so that in many respects they can be
viewed as a single system.

 The components of a cluster are usually connected to each other through

fast local area networks ("LAN"), with each node (computer used as a
server) running its own instance of an OS.

 Computer clusters emerged as a result of convergence of a number of

computing trends including the availability of low cost microprocessors,
high speed networks, and software for high performance distributed
computing.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLOSED SOURCE
SYSTEM AND OPEN SOURCE SYSTEM
 Closed Source
1)Closed-source model source code
is not released to the public.
Traditionally, they are sold for a
profit.
 
2)Closed-source operating systems
use code that is proprietary and
kept secret to prevent its use by
other entities.   3) Examples of computer open-
3)Closed-source operating systems
include Microsoft Windows, Solaris
Unix and OS X. 
Open Source
1)Open-source operating systems use
code that is freely-distributed
2) Open-source operating systems
code is available to anyone to use,
even for commercial purposes.  
source operating systems include
Linux, FreeBSD and Open Solaris.
VARIOUS PRODUCT /TYPES OF OS IN TODAY’S MARKET

SUN / SOLARIS

MICROSOFT WINDOWS

LINUX

MAC OS
VARIOUS VERSIONS OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

WINDOWS 95
WINDOWS 98 WINDOWS 2000 WINDOWS ME

WINDOWS XP WINDOWS VISTA WINDOWS 7

ISTRIBUTIONS OF LINUX OPERATING SYSTEM

UBUNTU LINUX SUSE LINUX

RED HAT LINUX
CENTOS LINUX

DEBIAN LINUX FEDORA LINUX TURBO LINUX

 Multitasking

Caching Multiprogramming

CONCEPT
S IN
RELATIO
N TO OS
Time
Spooling
Sharing

Buffering
 Multitasking
The ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task being a
program.

In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program to
another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of the programs at
the same time.

There are two basic types of multitasking: preemptive and cooperative.

In preemptive multitasking, the operating system parcels out CPU time slices to
each program.

In cooperative multitasking, each program can control the CPU for as long as it
needs it. If a program is not using the CPU, however, it can allow another program
to use it temporarily.

OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, the Amiga operating system and UNIX use
preemptive multitasking

Microsoft Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder (for Macintosh computers) use
 Multiprogramming

 The multiprogramming operating system could manage resources more

efficiently. More than one user’s program can be resident in main
memory at one time.

 In this system, multiple jobs are loaded into the central memory, and
each is allotted some CPU-TIME, a tiny fraction of a second during which
it receives the CPU’s attention.

 When a job’s CPU-TIME is up, it is suspended and control passes to the

next job, which can continue from where it left off before.

 In simpler terms the CPU is switched rapidly between the different

programs. This means the system does not have to wait for one job to be
completed before starting the next.
 BUFFERING

 A buffer is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data

while it is being moved from one place to another.
 Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from
an input device (such as a keyboard) or just before it is sent
to an output device (such as a printer).
 However, a buffer may be used when moving data between
processes within a computer. This is comparable to buffers
in telecommunication.
 Buffers can be implemented in either hardware or software,
but the vast majority of buffers are implemented in software.
 Buffers are typically used when there is a difference
between the rate at which data is received and the rate at
which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates
are variable, for example in a printer spooler.
 Spooling

 Spooling refers to the process of placing data in a temporary

working area for another program to process.
 Spooling is useful because devices access data at different
rates. Spooling allows one program to assign work to
another without directly communicating with it.
 The most common spooling application is print spooling:
documents formatted for printing are stored usually into an
area on a disk and retrieved and printed by a printer at its
own rate. Printers typically can print only a single document
at a time and require seconds or minutes to do so. With
spooling, multiple processes can write documents to a print
queue without waiting.
 As soon as a process has written its document to the spool
device, the process can perform other tasks, while a
separate printing process operates the printer.
 Caching

 A process where the component transparently stores

data so that future requests for that data can be served
faster.
 COMPONENTS OF OS
Kernel which represents the operating system's basic
functions such as management of memory, processes,
files, main inputs/outputs and communication
functionalities.

Shell allowing communication with the operating

system via a control language, letting the user control
the peripherals without knowing the characteristics of
the hardware used, management of physical
addresses, etc.

File system allowing files to be recorded in a tree

structure.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN
APPLICATIONS AND THE OS

Standard Relationship between Hardware, Operating System, and Applications

 INTERFACES OF OS

 Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a

user interface.
 The user interface requests services from the operating system that
will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard,
mouse or credit card reader, and requests operating system services
to display prompts, status messages and such on output hardware
devices, such as a video monitor or printer.
 User interfaces have different types:
 Command line interface
 Voice-actuated interface
 Graphical User Interface
 Web-form interface
1. Command Line Interface
• Command Line Interface, where the user provides the
input by typing a command string with the computer
keyboard and the system provides output by printing
text on the computer monitor.
• Used by programmers and system administrators, in
engineering and scientific environments, and by
technically advanced personal computer users.

Problem with Command Line Interface

• Users have to learn and remember a command
language.
• Command interfaces are therefore unsuitable for
occasional/novices users
• Users make errors in command. An error detection
and recovery system is required
• System interaction is through a keyboard so typing
ability is required
Example of Command Line Interface

An example of the command line. Each command is typed out after the 'prompt', and then its output
appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at the bottom.
2. Voice User Interfaces

• Voice user interfaces, which accept input and provide output

by generating voice prompts.
• The user input is made by pressing keys or buttons, or
responding verbally to the interface.
3. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI)

• Graphical user interfaces (GUI) accept input via devices such

as computer keyboard and mouse and provide articulated
graphical output on the computer monitor.
• Most users of business systems interact with these systems
through graphical interfaces although, in some cases, legacy
text-based interfaces are still used.
Advantages of GUI
•They are easy to learn and use.
- Users without experience can learn to use the system quickly.
•The user may switch quickly from one task to another and
can interact with several different applications.
- Information remains visible in its own window when attention
is switched.
•Fast, full-screen interaction is possible with immediate access to anywhere
on the screen
Example of GUI

An example of a graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on the screen, and
the files, folders, and applications take the form of icons and symbols. A mouse is used to
navigate the computer.
4. Web Based Form Interface

• Web based form interface accept input and provide

output by generating web pages which are
transmitted via the internet and viewed by the user
using a web browser.
• Users can fill in all the particulars required in the
form provided by the web browser.

• Example:
• Student registration form
• Borrowing books form(library) online
 Example of Web Based Form Interface

NE W BOOK

Title ISBN

Author Price

Publication
Publisher date
Number of
Edition copies

Classification Loan
status
Date of
Order
purchase
status
 OS
Interfaces How it works? Example

It is a mechanism for interacting with a

 Microsoft command
a) command computer operating
prompt
system or software by typing commands
line  Linux terminal
to perform specific tasks.

It involves a voice command A mobile phones with

b) voice
device where the device is controlled by voice-
actuated the human voice. activated dialling.
A user interface that allows the user to
c) Graphical activate operating system commands by
GUI of Windows / Linux
User Interface clicking on a desktop icon using a Ubuntu / Macintosh
pointing device such as a mouse or
(GUI) touch screen.
Login page /online
A place where user can enter the input,
registration form /
d) Web Form such as username, and it will be sent to
online shopping / online
the database of the server.
fund transfer.
System Calls

 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program
Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
System Call Implementation

 User programs are not allowed to access system resources

directly. They must ask the OS to do that for them.
 OS provides a set of functions that can be called by user
programs to request for OS services. These functions are
called “system calls”
 System calls run in kernel mode.
 They can be called by executing a special instruction (trap or
software interrupt) which causes processor to switch to the
kernel mode and jump to a previously defined location in the
kernel.
 When the system call finishes, processor returns to the user
program and runs in user mode.
Application Programming Interface (API)

 An API is a set of functions provided by an

operating system or other system software.

 An application program calls the functions to
request the services.
 An API clearly defines how to call functions and
what the results are. (API is specification, not
implementation)
 Examples: APIs for file system, graphics user
interface, networking, etc.
API and System Calls Diagram
Cont…

 Portability
 User programs that follow the API’s
definition are portable.
 An API can provide a common interface for
different implementations of a service.
 For example, the UNIX file system API is
the same for all kinds of devices.
Using an API allows upgrading system
software without changing user programs
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SYSTEM CALLS AND API

The user application use open() system call to request kernel providing service. The system
call table will be searched and find the corresponding system call number. The real
implementation is in kernel space. When execution accomplished, there is a result return to
user mode.
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