Research Methods and Basic Statistics

Subject: Introduction to psychology

Course Code:BPSY1123
Credit:3

• Research Methods and Basic Statistics

 Research Methods

Definition
A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the
sources from which information is obtained, how that information is sampled, and the
types of instruments that are used in data collection. Correlational research. Descriptive
research. Experimental research.
People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete
various tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention,
concentration, reasoning ability etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The
results of different groups are then compared. Participants should not be anxious about
performing well but simply do their best. The aim of these tests is not to judge people
or measure so-called intelligence, but to look for links between performance and other
factors. If computers are used, this has to be done in such a way that no previous
knowledge of computers is necessary. So, people should not be put off by this either.
 Research Methods and Basic Statistics

A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem using

scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research
is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive methods
are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with
qualitative research and deductive methods are more commonly associated with
quantitative research.
 Contd..
Types of Research
There are four types of research. 1) Survey Research, 2) Ex-Post Facto Research, 3)
Experimental Research (Field Experiments), 4) Case Study.
Survey Research-
The method of survey research is a non-experimental (that is, it does not involves any
observation under controlled conditions), descriptive research method which is one of the
quantitative methods used for studying of large sample. In a survey research, the researcher
collects data with the help of standardized questionnaires or interviews which is
administered on a sample of respondents from a population. The method of survey research
is one of the techniques of applied social research which can be helpful in collection of data
both through direct (such as a direct face interview) and indirect observation (such as
opinions on library services of an institute).
 Contd..
Steps involved in Conducting Survey Research
Any type of survey research follows the following systematic steps:
Step1: Determination of the aims and objectives of study:
The researcher must at the outset analysis and access the relevant areas or issues which
need to be studied. Once the research area is selected by the researcher, which need to be
the studied. Once the research area is selected by the researcher, the basic aims and
objectives have to be clearly specified. These have to be focused and analyzed so as to make
the purpose of research relevant and understandable. The researchers have to come up with
the basic aims and objectives which would be focused and analyzed in their overall research.
 Contd..
Step 2: Define the population to be studied:
After selecting the theme of the research, the researcher also needs to define the target
population which would be studied by him/her. As discussed earlier, the population or
universe would be a collection people or object that would possess at least one common
characteristic, which is going to be helpful and which would also provide direction in the
process of conducting the research.
Step 3: Design and construct a survey:
Once the target population is defined by the researcher, he/she needs to design a survey
research. On the basis of the framed design, the research decides to conduct a survey,
selects instruments or survey (for example telephonic interview) with the help of which data
will be collected. After the selection of the instrument, the researcher conducts a pilot study
(a small survey taken in advance of a major investigation or research). The pilot study helps
the researcher to analysis the significance and relevance of the instruments selected by the
researcher for the present research.
 Contd..
Step 4: Select a representative sample:
The process of construction of the survey instrument gives a way to the selection of the
sample from the target population. The researcher selects a sample which represents nearly
maximum characteristics of the whole population. If the sample selected is a good
representation of the population, then the results or the findings of the survey conducted on
the sample can be easily generalized on the population as a whole.
Step 5: Analysis and interpret the findings of the survey:
Once the data has been collected, the researcher analysis the data with the help of required
statistical tools and then interprets the findings on the basis of the information revealed. This
step involves several processes such as coding the data and then processing it.
 Contd..
Step 6: Prepare the report of the survey:
On the basis of the analysis and interpretation of the results, the researcher prepares a
report of the overall research conducted. The report contains all the details of aims,
objectives, data analysis, interpretation and discussion of the results. In this step, the
researcher tries to evaluate how the findings meet the proposed aims and objectives of the
research.
Step 7: Communicate the findings of the survey:
The most important step of conducting the survey research is to disseminate the survey
findings. The researcher needs to communicate the findings to the target population and it is
equally important record for the future research to be done on a similar field.
 Contd..
Ex-Post Facto Research
The ex-post facto research is a kind of research in which the researcher predicts the possible
causes behind an effect that had already occurred. For example, if a child is delinquent (that
is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in order to find the basic reason behind such
delinquency, the researcher would try to find out the various events that have occurred and
the many possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned delinquent behavior. The
expected possibilities may be lack of discipline at school/family history/peer effect/
neighborhood or socialization.
It is an interesting point to note that, the researcher predicts a cause on the basis of a
controlled effect.
 Contd..
Thus, an ex-post facto research can be defined as an empirically based investigation which
does not involve the researchers’ direct control over the independent variables because they
have already led to effects which can no more be manipulated. The conclusions regarding the
relationship between the variables are inferred without intervening or varying the
independent or dependent variable.
Steps of Ex-Post Facto Research
Step 1: Determining the Problem:
In an ex-post facto research, it is necessary for the researcher to focus on the problem that
he or she needs to study. They not only to find out a problem, they also need to determine,
analyze and define the problem which they will be dealing with.
 Contd..
Step 2: Literature Review
Before trying to predict the causal relationships, the researcher needs to study all the related
or similar literature and relevant studies, which may help in further analysis, prediction and
conclusion of the causal relationship between the variables under study.
Step 3: Formulation of hypothesis
The third step of the ex-post facto research is to propose the possible solutions or
alternatives that might have led to the effect. They need to list out the assumptions which
will be the basis of the hypothesis and procedure of the research.
Step 4: Design the Approach
Once the problem has been defined and the hypothesis has been postulated, the researcher
needs to select the sample which fits the criteria of the study. They also need to select the
scale or construct instrument for collecting the required information/data. Once the
designing are all finalized, the researcher analysis the relationship between the variables.
 Contd..
Step 5: Validity of the Research:
The researcher needs to validate the significance of their research. They need to be cautious
regarding the extent to which their findings would be valid and significant and helpful in
interpreting and drawing inferences from the obtained results.
Step 6: Interpretation of the Conclusion:
Finally, the researcher needs to analyze, evaluate and interpret the information collected. It is
on basis of this step only; the researcher selects the best possible alternative of causes which
might have led the effect to occur.
Experimental Research:
Experimental research is mainly used in science subjects such as physics, chemistry, medicine,
biology, etc. Experiment requires two variables, one independent variable and the other
dependent variable. It is important that in experimental research the independent variable is
manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent variable.
 Contd..
All other extraneous factors are completely controlled testing to understand the causal
processes. Generally, people can manipulate one or more variables to determine their effect
on a dependent variable. In other words, it is a systematic and scientific approach to research
in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls measures the other
variables.
Field Experiments:
Field experiments on the other hand refer to experiment conducted in real life situations.
Here the control of extraneous factors is not possible as it is a natural setting and there is no
way to control any factor so absolutely as one does in the laboratory experiments. Hence in
filed experiments researcher take two groups matched for a number of factors such as age,
sex, education, socio-economic status etc. Both these groups are in real life setting and thus
are subjected to similar extraneous variables and thus the experimenter can observe the
effects of his manipulation on one group and compare with the other group which is not
subjected to any intervention.
 Contd..
Case Study:
In the field of psychology case study is important tool for a good research methodology. The
case study is one of the important types of non-experimental or descriptive research. Case
study refers to an in-depth study of one situation or cases which may be one subject, group
or event. Usually the case is a person but a case study is really different from single and
experiment in a sense that the former does not involve manipulation of any independent
variables. There are researchers who distinguish between a case study, implying a
prospective, longitudinal approach and case history, implying a retrospective, archival
approach.
The purpose of the case study method is to understand the important aspects of the life
cycle of the unit. In, fact such study deeply analyzes and interprets the interactions between
the different factors that influence the change or growth of the unit. Thus, it is basically a
longitudinal approach which studies the unit over a period of time.
 Contd..
A review of literature in this fields reveals that case studies are not confident to the study of
individuals and their importance behavioral characteristics, rather, case studies have been
made of all types of communities and of all types of individuals. Whatever, the type of
individual or community is, the element of typicalness, rather than uniqueness, is the focus
of attention in the case study. Therefore, a case of the case study, as Bromley (1986) has
suggested, is not only about a ‘person’ but involves a category of ‘individuals’. In the light of
this suggestion, the selection of the subjects for the case study needs to be done very
carefully, so that it may be assured that he or she is the typical of those to whom the
generalization is to be made (Best & Khan, 1992).
 Contd..
Research Methods: Before addressing where research questions in psychology come from- it
is important to understand the kinds of questions that researchers in psychology typically
ask.
Variables: Research questions in psychology are about variables. A variable is a quantity that
varies across people or situations. For example, the height of the students enrolled in a
university course is a variable because it varies from student to student. The chosen major of
the students is also a variable as long as not everyone in the class has declared the same
major. A quantitative variable is a quantity, such as height, that is typically measured by
assigning a number to each individual. Other examples of quantitative variables include
people’s level of talkativeness, how depressed they are, and the number of siblings they
have. A categorical variable is a quality, such as chosen major, and is typically measured by
assigning a category label to each individual (e.g., Psychology, English, Nursing, etc.). Other
examples include people’s nationality, their occupation, and whether they are receiving
psychotherapy.
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Sampling and Measurement
Researchers in psychology are usually interested in drawing conclusions about some very
large group of people. This is called the population. It could be Canadian teenagers, children
with autism, professional athletes, or even just human beings—depending on the interests
and goals of the researcher. But they usually study only a small subset or sample of the
population. For example, a researcher might measure the talkativeness of a few hundred
university students with the intention of drawing conclusions about the talkativeness of men
and women in general. It is important, therefore, for researchers to use a representative
sample—one that is similar to the population in important respects.
One method of obtaining a sample is simple random sampling, in which every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. For example, a pollster
could start with a list of all the registered voters in a city (the population), randomly select
100 of them from the list (the sample), and ask those 100 whom they intended to vote for.
Unfortunately, random sampling is difficult or impossible in most psychological research
because the populations are less clearly defined than the registered voters in a city.
 Contd..
How could a researcher give all Canadian teenagers or all children with autism an equal
chance of being selected for a sample? The most common alternative to random sampling is
convenience sampling, in which the sample consists of individuals who happen to be nearby
and willing to participate (such as introductory psychology students). Of course, the obvious
problem with convenience sampling is that the sample might not be representative of the
population.
Once the sample is selected, researchers need to measure the variables they are interested
in. This requires an operational definition—a definition of the variable in terms of precisely
how it is to be measured. Most variables can be operationally defined in many different ways.
For example, depression can be operationally defined as people’s scores on a paper-and-
pencil depression scale such as the Beck Depression Inventory, the number of depressive
symptoms they are experiencing, or whether they have been diagnosed with major
depressive disorder. When a variable has been measured for a particular individual, the result
is called a score, and a set of scores is called data. Note that data is plural—the singular
datum is rarely used—so it is grammatically correct to say, “Those are interesting data” (and
incorrect to say, “That is interesting data”).
 Contd..
Statistical Relationships Between Variables:
Some research questions in psychology are about one variable. How common is it for
soldiers who have served in the Canadian Forces to develop post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) after returning from a deployment in a war zone? How talkative are
Canadian university students? How much time per week do school children spend
online? Answering such questions requires operationally defining the variable,
measuring it among a sample, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions about
the population. For a quantitative variable, this would typically involve computing
the mean and standard deviation of the scores. For a categorical variable, it would
typically involve computing the percentage of scores at each level of the variable.
 Contd..
However, research questions in psychology are more likely to be about statistical
relationships between variables. There is a statistical relationship between two
variables when the average score on one differs systematically across the levels of
the other (e.g., if the average exam score is higher among students who took notes
longhand instead of by using a laptop computer). Studying statistical relationships is
important because instead of telling us about behaviors and psychological
characteristics in isolation, it tells us about the potential causes, consequences,
development, and organization of those behaviors and characteristics.
There are two basic forms of statistical relationship: differences between groups and
correlations between quantitative variables. Although both are consistent with the
general definition of a statistical relationship—the average score on one variable
differs across levels of the other—they are usually described and analyzed somewhat
differently. For this reason, it is important to distinguish them clearly.
 Contd..
Differences Between Groups:
One basic form of statistical relationship is a difference between the mean scores of
two groups on some variable of interest. A wide variety of research questions in
psychology take this form. Are women really more talkative than men? Do people
talking on a cell phone have poorer driving abilities than people not talking on a cell
phone? Do people receiving Psychotherapy A tend to have fewer depressive
symptoms than people receiving Psychotherapy B? Later they will also see that such
relationships can involve more than two groups and that the groups can consist of
the very same individuals tested at different times or under different conditions. For
now, however, it is easiest to think in terms of two distinct groups.
Differences between groups are usually described by giving the mean score and
standard deviation for each group.
 Contd..
Research Design
The research design is intended to provide an appropriate framework for a study. The
research design is the detailed plan of the investigation. In, fact it is the blueprint of
the detailed procedures of testing the hypothesis and analyzing obtained data. The
research design, thus, may be defined as the sequence of those steps taken ahead of
time to ensure that the relevant data will be collected in a way that permits objective
analysis of the different hypothesis formulated with respect to the research
problems. Thus, the research design helps the researcher in testing the hypothesis by
reaching valid and objective conclusions regarding the relationship between
independent and dependent variables. A very significant decision in research design
process is the choice to be made regarding research approach since it determines
how relevant information for a study will be obtained; however, the research design
process involves many interrelated decisions.
 Contd..
This study employed a mixed type of methods. The first part of the study
consisted of a series of well-structured questionnaires (for management,
employee’s representatives, and technician of industries) and semi-
structured interviews with key stakeholders (government bodies,
ministries, and industries) in participating organizations. The other
design used is an interview of employees to know how they feel about
safety and health of their workplace, and field observation at the
selected industrial sites was undertaken.
 Contd..

Data sources
Primary Data Sources
It was obtained from the original source of information. The primary
data were more reliable and have more confidence level of decision-
making with the trusted analysis having direct intact with occurrence of
the events. The primary data sources are industries’ working
environment (through observation, pictures, and photograph) and
industry employees (management and bottom workers) (interview,
questionnaires and discussions).
 Contd..
Secondary Data
Desk review has been conducted to collect data from various secondary sources. This
includes reports and project documents at each manufacturing sectors (more on
medium and large level). Secondary data sources have been obtained from literatures
regarding OSH, and the remaining data were from the companies’ manuals, reports,
and some management documents which were included under the desk review.
Reputable journals, books, different articles, periodicals, proceedings, magazines,
newsletters, newspapers, websites, and other sources were considered on the
manufacturing industrial sectors. The data also obtained from the existing working
documents, manuals, procedures, reports, statistical data, policies, regulations, and
standards were taken into account for the review.
 Basic Statistics

Basic Statistics:
Psychologists rely heavily on statistics to help assess the meaning of the
measurements they make. Sometimes the measurements involve individuals who
complete psychological tests; at other times, the measurements involve statistics
that describe general properties of groups of people or animals.
In psychological testing, the psychologist may interpret test results in light of
norms, or the typical results, provided from previous testing. In research,
psychologists use two kinds of statistics, descriptive and inferential. Descriptive
statistics simply give a general picture of the scores in a given group. They include
the measures of central tendency and the measures of variability.
Central tendency involves different kinds of averages: the mean, median, and
mode. Variability involves the standard deviation, which indicates how far scores
in a group are likely to be from the average.
 Contd..

Inferential statistics are used to help psychologists draw inferences, or

conclusions, from the data obtained from their research. The most common
statistical tests include the student's T-test and the Analysis of Variance (or F-
test); these statistics help the psychologist assess whether the differences in
averages across groups are due to the effects of an independent variable.
Another widely used inferential statistic is the correlation coefficient, which
describes the strength of the relationship between two variables. For example,
there is a positive correlation between a student's score on the Scholastic
Assessment Test (SAT) and his/her grades in the first year of college.
Correlations involve patterns that exist in groups; individuals within those
groups may not perform in the manner the correlation predicts that they will,
but if large numbers of students are tested, general trends may be detected.
 Basic Statistics
• Statistics in Psychology
• A branch of mathematics devoted to the collection, compilation, display, and interpretation of numerical data.
• Statistics: “a bunch of mathematics used to summarize, analyze, and interpret a group of numbers or observations.”It is a tool for
measurement. 
• Types of Measurement 
• Discrete: Quantitative data are called discrete if the sample space contains a finite or countably infinite number of values.
• Continuous: Quantitative data are called continuous if the sample space contains an interval or continuous span of real numbers.
• Eg.. weight, height… weight 80 kg. height 1.5 meter etc
• Nominal-Ca tegorical variables. Numbers that are simply used as identifiers or names represent a nominal scale of measurement such male
vs female.
•
Ordinal-an ordinal scale of measurement represents an ordered series of relationships or rank order. Likert-type scales (such as "On a scale
of 1 to 10, with one being no pain and ten being high pain, how much pain are you in today?") represent ordinal data.
• Interval-: A scale that represents quantity and has equal units but for which zero represents simply an additional point of measurement.
• Farenheit scale is a clear eg of interval scale of measurement.
• Ratio- The ratio scale of measurement is similar to the interval scale in that it also represents quantity and has equality of units. However,
this scale also has an absolute zero (no numbers exist below zero). For example, height and weight etc
 Contd..

• Statistics •
• Refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information.
• Consists of facts and figures such as average income, crime rate, birth rate, average snowfall, and
so on.
• Population, is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.
• • Sample, is a set of individual selected from a population, usually intended to represent the
population in a research study.
• Variables and Data
• • A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different
individuals.
• • Data is used for measurements or observations
 Contd..

•         Parameter and Statistic

• • Parameter is usually a numerical value that describes a population.
• • Statistic is usually a numerical value that describes a sample.
• Basic Statistics are of 2 types.
• Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize,
and make sense of a set of scores or observations.”
• Inferential Statistics are procedures used that allow researchers to infer or
generalize observations made with samples to the larger population from which
they were selected consist of techniques that allows to study samples and then
make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected.
 Contd..

• 
• Sampling Error
• • It is the discrepancy, or amount of error, that exists between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter.
• Descriptive Statistics: Organize and Simplify.
• Inferential Statistics: Interpret the results.
•  
• Sample Inference:
• 1. There actually is no difference between the two teaching methods, and the sample difference is
due to chance.
• 2. There is a difference between the two methods, and the sample data accurately reflect this
difference.
•  
 Contd..

• Relationship Between Variables

• • Correlational Method, two different variables ae observed to determine whether there is a
relationship between them.
• • Sometimes correlational method are not numerical values. Ex. A researcher could measure
home location (city or suburb) and attitude toward a new budget proposal (for or against) for a
group of registered voters.
• Comparing Two (or more) Groups of Scores:
• Experimental and Nonexperimental
• The Experimental method Manipulation. The researcher manipulates one variable by changing its
value from one level to another.
• A second variable is observed (measured) to determine whether the manipulation causes changes
to occur.
• 
 Contd..

• Control. The researcher must exercise control over the research situation to ensure that other, extraneous variables
do not influence the relationship being examined.
• A discrete variable consists of separate, indivisible categories. No values can exist between two neighboring
categories. Ex. Gender, Nationality, Occupation
• • Continuous variable, there are an infinite number of possible values that fall between any two observed values. A
continuous variable is divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts. Ex. Weight, Height
• Data collection requires that we make measurements of our observations. Measurement involves assigning
individuals or events to categories.
• 
• Properties of Scales
• • Magnitude is the property of “moreness.” A scale has the property of magnitude if we can say that a particular
instance of the attribute represents more, less, or equal amounts of the given quantity than does another instance.
• • Equal intervals. the difference between two points at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the
difference between two other points that differ by the same number of scale units.
• • Absolute 0 is obtained when nothing of the property being measured exists.
 Contd..

• Scales of Measurement
• • A nominal scale consists of a set of categories that have different names.
Measurements on a nominal scale label and categorize observations, but do not
make any quantitative distinctions between observations.
• • An ordinal scale consists of a set of categories that are organized in an ordered
sequence. Measurements on an ordinal scale rank observations in terms of size or
magnitude.
• • Both an interval scale and a ratio scale consist of a series of ordered categories (like
an ordinal scale) with the additional requirement that the categories form a series of
intervals that are all exactly the same size. Thus, the scale of measurement consists
of a series of equal intervals, such as inches on a ruler.
• 
 Contd..

• Interval vs. Ratio

• • Interval scale has an arbitrary zero point. the value 0 is assigned to a particular location on the
scale simply as a matter of convenience or reference. In particular, a value of zero does not
indicate a total absence of the variable being measured.
• • Ratio scale is anchored by a zero point that is not arbitrary but rather is a meaningful value
representing none (a complete absence) of the variable being measured.
• 
• Frequency Distribution
• • It displays scores on a variable or a measure to reflect how frequently each value was obtained.
• • Percentile Rank replace simple ranks when we want to adjust for the number of scores in a
group. It answers the question, “What percent of the scores fall below a particular score (Xi)?”
• • Percentile is specific scores or points within a distribution.
 Contd..

• Probability: the frequency of times an outcome is likely to occur divided by the total number of possible
outcomes.
• It generally varies between 0 to 1.
• 
• Central Tendency
• • is a statistical measure to determine a single score that defines the center of a distribution. The goal of
central tendency is to find the single score that is most typical or most representative of the entire group
• 
• Mean
• The mean, also known as the arithmetic average, is computed by adding all the scores in the distribution
and dividing by the number of scores. The mean for a population is identified by the Greek letter mu,
(pronounced “mew”), and the mean for a sample is identified by M or X
• 
 Contd..

• Median
• Median is the middle value in a distribution of data listed in a numeric order. 
• If the scores in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to largest, the median is the midpoint of the list. More
specifically, the median is the point on the measurement scale below which 50% of the scores in the distribution are
located. • The median, on the other hand, defines the middle of the distribution in terms of • scores. In particular,
the median is located so that half of the scores are on one side and • half are on the other side.
• 3,3,5,6,7,8,9………6 is the median( eg) 
• Mode 
• The value in a data set that occurs more frequently or more often.
• Mode is the score or category that has the greatest frequency. “the customary fashion” or “a popular style.”
• Eg- 2,3,3,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,5,5,6,6.
• 4 is the mode. 
• Variability • It provides a quantitative measure of the degree to which scores in a distribution are spread out or
clustered. • Defined in terms of distance. • It measures how well an individual represents the entire distribution
• 
 Contd..

• Measures of Variability
• • Range, is knowing the highest and lowest. Getting the largest score
to the smallest score in a distribution.
• • Standard Deviation, it is the most commonly used and the most
important measure of variability. It uses the mean of the distribution
as a reference point and measures variability by considering the
distance between each score and the mean.
• Variance, the average squared distance from the mean.
 Contd..

• Measurement The act or process of assigning numbers to phenomena

according to a rule.
• Benefits
• 1. Objectivity. Allows theories to be tested.
• 2. Quantification. Allows more detail than personal judgment.
• 3. Better communication.
• 
Contd..