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Chromatography 2
Chromatography 2
1
© Royal Society of Chemistry 2010
Chapter 6 – Introduction to Chromatographic
Methods. Thin Layer Chromatography
Contents
Introduction to chromatographic analysis
Chromatography is first and foremost a method of separation. However
because chromatographs (sophisticated instruments used for chromatographic
analysis) allow for qualitative identification and quantitative measurement in
addition to performing separations, chromatography is often viewed as a total
method of analysis.
Sample sizes used for analysis are generally very small (often less than
1microlitre (µl), however they are sufficient to provide complex analysis
information.
Once separated the analytes (or solutes) are detected. If mass spectrometry,
infra-red or nuclear magnetic resonance detection is used, the resulting
chromatographic system is referred to as a tandem system. Tandem systems
are very powerful analytical tools allowing samples of nanogram size to be
both separated and characterised.
3
Chromatography relies on having two phases. A phase is a liquid, solid or gas
which can interact either chemically or physically with the analytes (solutes) to be
separated. In chromatography, the two phases are termed:
Analytes are usually introduced into the mobile phase stream. As this stream
moves past the stationary phase, some of the analytes will interact with this fixed
phase, resulting in them being retained. Other analytes remain in the mobile
phase and move on. The retained analytes can then move back into a fresh
portion of mobile phase as it flows past them.
4
5
History of chromatography
The first chromatographic separation was reported in 1903 by
Tswett, who separated plant pigments using a stationary phase
of calcium carbonate and a mobile phase of petroleum ether.
The separation as illustrated in figure (6.1)
shows the two coloured pigments separating
as they progress through the column allowing
them to be collected separately as they emerge
(elute) from the column.
6
Figure 6.1
In 1941 Martin and Synge published a paper describing the principles of partition
chromatography, in which the stationary phase was a high boiling liquid coated
onto a solid support. In 1952 they were jointly awarded the Nobel prize for
chemistry.
In 1952, Martin and James invented gas-liquid chromatography (glc), a
technique which uses a gas as the mobile phase. This is now a widely used
technique for separating volatile or semi-volatile organic substances, for example
herbicide pollutants in water or the components in a petroleum fraction.
Although research into high pressure (now termed high performance) liquid
chromatography (hplc) began in the late 1960’s, the technique did not get
widely used until about a decade later with the advent of instrumental
components that could withstand pressures as high as 6000 psi and pumps that
could deliver these pressures in a smooth rather than a pulsed flow mode. More
recently, further advances have enabled the development of ultra performance
liquid chromatography (uplc) where pressures of 15000 psi are used.
In the 1990s electrochromatography was developed. The mobile phase flow is
driven through a packed capillary column by an electric field rather than a pump.
These developments are summarised in table (6.1) on the next slide.
7
Table 6.1 - summary of historical landmarks in chromatography
8
Principles of chromatography
In column chromatography analytes are injected into the mobile phase stream
and are swept on to the column containing the stationary phase. Those
analytes which do not interact in any way with the stationary phase pass
straight through the column, they are the first to elute (flow out of the column).
Some analytes will interact so strongly with the stationary phase that they
remain on the column, ‘never to be seen again’. In between these two
extremes, are analytes which spend some time interacting with the mobile
phase, during this time they move through the column, and some time bonded
to the stationary phase. Each analyte spends a slightly different length of time
in the two phases and hence by the end of the column, the individual
components of the analyte sample, which had been injected into the mobile
phase stream, are separated and can be detected.
9
As described on the previous slide, analytes distribute themselves between two
phases the stationary and the mobile phase.
As the name suggests the stationary phase does not move. It is:
A finely divided solid spread as a thin layer onto a sheet of glass or plastic;
A finely divided solid packed tightly into a glass or stainless steel tube,
referred to as a column;
A finely divided solid coated with a thin layer of organic liquid and again
packed into a glass or stainless steel column.
A glass or silica capillary whose inner surface is coated with a low volatile
organic liquid
10
Results aimed for
In any chromatographic separation,
Detector response
the following features are desirable:
All analytes separated
Ideal results are not always easily achieved, however the following notes provide
the basic information to enable simple chromatographic separations to be carried
out.
11
Column chromatography
12
Modes of chromatography
The particles which fill a chromatographic column are not all the same
hence the types of interactions between analytes and stationary phases are
not all the same.
13
The modes of chromatography outlined in the following slides are:
Adsorption
Partition
Bonded phase
Ion exchange
Affinity
Size exclusion
The mode describes the way in which analytes interact with the stationary
phase.
14
Adsorption chromatography
If silica, a silicon-oxygen polymer as illustrated
in figure (6.4) is the stationary phase, the
surface hydroxyl groups interact with the Si OH
analytes, the more the interaction the more the
O
analytes are retained and therefore the longer
they take to pass through the column. Si OH
O Figure 6.4 -
structure of silica
15
The mobile phase (solvent) and
analyte molecules compete for the
adsorbent sites of the stationary
phase. The more polar the
molecules the longer they are
retained.
Separation of isomers
17
Partition chromatography
In partition chromatography a solid
support with a high surface area
such as crushed firebrick or
keiselguhr is coated with a high
boiling liquid which acts as the
stationary phase. Separation occurs Solid
because of the differences in support
solubility for the analytes in the
stationary and mobile phases.
18
Applications of partition
chromatography
There are an immense number of possible applications of partition
chromatography. The list below gives just a few examples of where this
technique is routinely applied:
19
Bonded phase chromatography
In bonded phase chromatography, the molecule acting as the stationary
phase is chemically bonded to the solid support.
For this reason, the use of silica (a polar molecule) as the stationary phase (as in adsorption chromatography) is also considered to be a normal phase separation method.
Because of its versatility and wide range of applicability, reversed-phased chromatography is the most frequently used hplc method.
21
Ion exchange (or ion) chromatography
As the name suggests, in ion exchange chromatography, ionic analytes are
exchanged with ionic groups on the stationary phase - usually a polymer with
ionic functional groups.
The next 3 slides explains the mechanism of the suppression effect in ion chromatography
22
NR3+ OH- Exchanging ion
Polymeric
stationary phase Polymer functional group
On the next slide, figure (6.10) shows the analytical and suppressor columns
used in ion exchange chromatography.
23
Figure 6.10 – Schematic representation of ion exchange separating and
suppressor columns
Cl- Br- -
-
OH
Separating column OH -
-
Cl
Cl - NR3+OH- + NaX NR3+X- + NaOH
OH
Br-- - NaX is the salt of the ion of interest, X is Cl-
OH Br-
-
or Br .
Cl
Cl-OH-
Suppressor column
OH-
H2O SO3-H+ + Na+ + OH- SO3-Na+ + H2O
OH-
OH- represents ions
Conductance detector D of high conductivity Comparatively low
from the mobile conductivity
phase
24
Figure (6.10) on the previous slide, shows that analyte ions literally exchange with
similarly charged ions from the stationary phase. Each analyte ion will interact with
the stationary phase according to its charge, size and to a certain extent shape,
thereby bringing about a separation. As the analytes are ions, a convenient way of
detecting them is to use a conductance detector.
The problem with using a conductance detector is that it will also measure the
conductance of the mobile phase. As the mobile phase is an ionic solvent it will
itself have a high conductance against which the comparatively small analyte signal
needs to be measured.
For a long time the problem described above, meant that ion chromatography was
not sensitive enough to detect low (ppm) levels of ionic analytes. The problem was
solved by a company called Dionex (their name is often synonymous with ion
exchange chromatography), which introduced a suppressor column after the
separating column. The suppressor column also contains an ion exchange resin.
The ions from this resin react with the ions of the mobile phase to produce
molecules which have a lower conductance, e.g. water, than the ions themselves.
The analyte ions will also react with this resin but the molecules formed will be of
equal conductance to those they replace. In the previous slide NaCl (eluting
analyte) would be replaced with HCl.
25
Applications of ion exchange
chromatography
Separation of vitamins
Analysis of serum
Analysis of drugs
26
Affinity chromatography
Affinity chromatography involves the interaction of a ligand (bound to a solid
support with a spacer molecule) with the analyte.
There are two types of ligand that can be used in affinity chromatography.
Those which are specific and so bind to a specific analyte and those which
are general and which bind to a group of analytes which have similar
properties. A ligand acts in a similar way to an enzyme, a brief description of
which is given on the next slide.
27
Enzymes in analytical science
An enzyme is typically a protein molecule which enables reactions to proceed under
physiological conditions. Often an enzyme reacts with a very limited number of compounds
referred to as substrates. Binding between an enzyme and a substrate is via weak
covalent bonds the formation of which is strongly influenced by the shapes of the enzyme
and substrates, this has led to the lock and key theory to describe how the shape of the
enzyme allows only those substrates with a complimentary shape to react; this theory also
explains how the ligand in affinity chromatography behaves (seeing binding step in figure
(6.12). Because the bonds between an enzyme and its substrate are weak any
change in the shape of the substrate due to chemical reactions which have taken place
while bound to the enzyme or any change in the conditions under which the reaction is
taking place cause the bonds between enzyme and substrate to further weaken and
ultimately to release the modified substrate. In affinity chromatography it is undesirable to
modify the substrate so one mobile phase is used to give the conditions to enable binding
and a second mobile phase is used to elute the retained analytes, a small change in the
pH or ionic strength of the mobile phase can be sufficient to enable elution.
In affinity chromatography the ligand is bound to the solid support using a spacer molecule
this molecule is present to ensure that the ligand retains its required binding properties as
if it was in close proximity to the solid support the shape of the ligand could be distorted by
additional binding to with the solid support itself.
28
The five steps in affinity chromatography
These five steps are illustrated in figure (6.12) shown on the next slide
29
activation
load
binding
washing
elution
Immunoassays
31
Size exclusion chromatography
In size exclusion chromatography (sec) there are no chemical interactions with
the mobile phase. The analytes are separated based on physical interactions -
whether on not they are small enough to fit into the pores of the stationary
phase.
The stationary phases used are wide-pore silica gel, polysaccharides, and
synthetic polymers like polyacrylamide or styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer.
Pore sizes within the solid phases range from 4 – 250 nm.
32
6.13
6.14
34
Application of size exclusion
chromatography
Determination of the molecular mass distribution of synthetic polymers
Analysis of sugars
35
Chromatographic terms
Chromatography is a method used for separating a mixture of compounds.
36
Void time or void volume
Figure (6.15) shows a chromatogram
containing two peaks:
The analyte peak (tr from the point
of injection)
Signal The unretained peak (tm from the
point of injection
The time tm represents the void time
of the column, which is the time
Point of required for an un-retained solute
Time (those that move through the column
injection
Figure 6.15 column void time at the same rate as the mobile phase)
to move from the point of injection to
the detector. This time can be significant for solutes that elute rapidly from the
column and thus should be allowed for in calculations of relative retention. To
allow for the void time, measurements of retention time are made, not from the
time of injection, but from the retention time of an unretained component ‘tm’
These values are sometimes referred to as ‘Adjusted retention times’ and are
given the symbol ( tr’), see next slide. 37
The chromatogram
On the previous slide the adjusted retention and relative retention ratios
were illustrated. These values are sometimes used instead of the retention
time itself, as they are less influenced by any changes in the experimental
conditions which can occur.
39
The partition coefficient
40
Resolution -Rs
t r2 t r1
Rs Equation (6.5)
0.5( w 2 w 1 )
where:
tr1 is the retention time of one analyte
and tr2 is the retention time of the next
analyte to elute
w1 and w2 are the widths of the peaks at
base when approximated to triangles.
Figure 6.17 – a sketch of a Note: both tr measurements are made from
chromatogram showing adjusted that of the unretained peak.
retention times and peak width
Baseline resolution when R = 1.0 for triangles!
Chromatographic peaks are not triangles they are Gaussian in shape; for
Gaussian peaks Rs = 1.5 for baseline resolution (complete separation) as when
Rs = 1.0 only 94% resolution is obtained.
41
The capacity factor
Capacity factor, k’ (kay prime) or more correctly k
'
t rA
k' Equation (6.6)
tm
When developing chromatographic methods a k’ value between 5 – 20 is
aimed for, as this usually gives good separation in a reasonable time.
42
Chromatographic plate theory
The plate theory arises from the theories which describe fractional distillation. It
shows why analyte molecules which are injected into the mobile phase at the
same time, give rise to a peak which is Gaussian (bell) shaped and why peaks
have a finite width of many seconds.
According to the theory, an analyte will partition itself between zones (or plates)
of the mobile and stationary phases as they come into contact with each other.
Figure (6.18) on the following slide, illustrates the chromatographic process for a
single analyte with a value of K = 1 and which therefore partitions itself equally
between the mobile and the stationary phases.
43
Figure 6.18 - an animated diagram of a chromatographic separation, illustration
movement of an analyte through a column
The analyte (64 parts) partitions itself between the two phases as they come
into contact.
Mobile phase
64 32 32
64 16 12 16 12 16 12 8
2
8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4 2
4 4
8 2 12 8 12 8 8 2
Cs
16 32 16
K 1
Cm Stationary phase
44
In figure (6.18) the analyte started on one plate of the mobile phase but after 5
equilibrations it was spread across five plates. This demonstrates how dividing the
phases into theoretical plates explains the spreading of analyte molecules during a
chromatographic separation. It also demonstrates why chromatographic peaks
are Gaussian, or bell shaped, in shape rather than being triangular. In reality the
analyte molecules also spread due to
other factors which will be discussed
when the deficiencies or limitations
of the plate theory are considered.
45
The figure (6.20) below illustrates the effect of the analyte partition
coefficients, the ‘parts’ of the analyte have been plotted as the concentration
of the analyte. Analytes with different partition coefficients separate from
one another as they partition between the theoretical plates.
Concentration of analyte
solvent
The nature of the analyte and the mobile and stationary phases
determines the partition coefficients;
How sensitive a detector is to a particular analyte - the response factor
changes the size of the peak observed;
The number of equilibrations which can take place in a column ie the
number of theoretical plates determines how good the final separation of
the analytes will be.
47
Column efficiency
‘H’ or HETP is the length of column which
corresponds to a theoretical plate. This
needs to be a minimum for efficient
separation
48
L NH Equation (6.7)
The plate theory assumes K is linear and therefore that the plates are
symmetrical;
It assumes rapid equilibration of the analyte between mobile and
stationary phases;
All peak broadening is not accounted for;
The effect of the mobile phase is ignored;
The dimensions (eg the thickness) of the phases are not taken into
account
50
Eddy diffusion
6.22
The fact that the analyte molecules do not all take the same path through a
packed column means that they do not all reach the detector at the same
time hence peak broadening is observed.
51
Longitudinal broadening
(blotting paper effect)
Mobile phase
flow
Narrow at point of Broadened analyte zone some
introduction on the time after introduction on to the
column column due to the diffusion of
the analyte.
If the velocity of the mobile phase is high then the analyte spends less
time on the column which decreases the effects of longitudinal
broadening.
52
Equilibrium not established
Mobile phase
flow
If the mobile phase velocity is high the worse the broadening becomes.
53
Comparison of peak broadening theories
The peak broadening effects on the previous three slides require very different
mobile phase flow rates in order for peak broadening to be minimised.
As will be shown at the end of the ‘Rate theory’ section of these notes, this
apparent contradiction results in an optimum value for the mobile phase flow
rate.
54
Chromatographic Rate theory
Because of the limitations of the plate theory it has been largely replaced by
the ‘Rate theory’, which is based mathematically upon the Van Deemter
equation. This is shown as equation (6.10) below:
1 B Equation (6.10)
H Au 3
Cu
u
Where:
u is the average mobile phase velocity
A takes into account eddy diffusion
B longitudinal diffusion
C mass transfer
6.25
56
Comparison between Plate and
Rate theories
The advantage of the rate theory is that the terms A, B and C are defined in
terms of experimental variables which in practise are seen to affect the
chromatographic separation which is obtained. Typical variables are:
The plate theory does not take into account all these variables nor does it take
into account the mobile phase flow rate which as has been shown has a
significant effect on the peaks obtained during a separation. However the
plate theory does explain why separation is achieved and the shape of the
peaks.
57
Types of chromatography
This chapter of this teaching & learning programme has outlined the theoretical
principles of a number of chromatographic techniques. Three of these
techniques will be considered in more detail. These are:
58
Thin layer chromatography (tlc)
In thin layer chromatography (tlc) the stationary phase is coated, as a thin
layer, onto a flat sheet of glass, plastic or sometimes metal. The mobile phase
(a single solvent or a mixture of solvents) is poured into the developing tank, a
lid placed on the tank and the atmosphere inside the tank allowed to equilibrate
with the solvent(s). The mixture of analytes is spotted onto the plate at a height
above the level of the solvent. The plate is then placed into the developing
tank, the lid replaced and the mobile phase allowed to rise up the plate by
capillary action. The analytes separate in the usual chromatographic manner
due to their interactions with the mobile and stationary phases. Figure (6.26)
on the next slide, illustrates these procedures diagrammatically.
The line along which the analytes are spotted on to the plate is called the
baseline and the line to which the mobile phase travels is known as the
solvent front.
59
6.26
60
tlc mobile phases
Figure (6.27) on the next slide shows the importance of selecting a suitable
mobile phase in order to create the best conditions for separation.
The analytes are of medium ‘polarity’. In this instance the heptane / toluene
mobile phase is not strong (or polar) enough to compete with the polar
sites on stationary phase for the analytes, hence the analytes do not move
far from the baseline where they were spotted initially onto the plate.
Conversely the methanol / toluene mobile phase is too strong (too polar)
and therefore the analytes all move to the solvent front. In this instance the
analytes are unable to compete with the mobile phase for the stationary
phase. When toluene (weakly polar), is used as the mobile phase the
‘polarities’ of the stationary and mobile phases are suitably balanced so that
there is discrimination between the analytes and hence they are separated.
Remember the rule of thumb ‘like separates like’. Here it applies to the
relative polarities of the mobile phase and the analytes. As stated earlier,
there is a limited number of stationary phases for use in tlc, therefore
discrimination between analytes is achieved by altering the mobile phase
composition.
61
Heptane / toluene toluene Methanol / toluene
(non-polar) (polar)
62
Tlc visualisation
In tlc there are a number of ways of observing or visualising the separated
(and mostly colourless) analytes. These divide into two categories physical
and chemical methods.
Physical Methods
The physical methods are based on the absorbance or emission of radiation,
usually in the ultraviolet (UV) range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Many of
the compounds separated will absorb uv light. Therefore placing a developed
tlc plate under a UV lamp will show up these compounds as darker spots (the
light having been absorbed) against a lighter background. If the separated
analytes are capable of emitting radiation (fluorescing), then placing the plate
under a suitable light source will results in bright, fluorescing spots being
shown.
Some analytes are incapable of absorbing UV light or fluorescing. In this case
a fluorescent compound, such as cadmium or zinc sulphides, is incorporated
into the stationary phase so the whole plate appears bright yellow/green when
held under a uv light source. Once this type of plate is developed the analytes
appear as dark spots as they quench the background fluorescence from the
stationary phase.
63
Chemical Methods
Chemical methods of visualisation can be selective and highlight a few
analytes, or be universal and highlight nearly every analyte. To use a
chemical visualiser the reagent is sprayed on to the plate as a fine mist or the
plate is quickly dipped into a tank of the reagent vapour. Universal visualisers
include iodine and concentrated sulphuric acid.
Iodine forms complexes with organic compounds which are brown in colour
and hence the analytes on the tlc plate appear brown. The advantage of this
method is that the complexes are not very stable and so the spots fade within a
short period of time leaving the analyte unchanged. Sulphuric acid also
produces brown spots but this is because any organic material has been
charred and therefore destroyed.
Selective visualisers include ninhydrin which reacts with amines, peptides and
amino acids to produce purple/pink compounds. Another reagent, fluorescein
can be used to convert hydrocarbons, barbiturates and many other compounds
into fluorescent derivatives which then fluoresce under UV light.
64
Tlc - reporting results
In tlc the retardation factor (Rf) is used to report the results of a separation
Solvent front
Figure 6.28 - diagram of tlc plate to show distance to the solvent front to enable
calculation of the Rf value.
66
Tlc - applications
Used to check the purity and success of organic syntheses;
A quick way of checking the purity of reagents;
Can be used to investigate potential hplc separations as the same
stationary and mobile phases can be used in both techniques;
Can be useful when a high sample throughput required, as 20+ samples
can be spotted on a single plate.
The main disadvantage of tlc is that it does not readily lend itself to quantitative
analyses, unlike hplc or gc and thus is used mainly for identification purposes
(qualitative analysis)
67
Question 6.1 Sketch and label an idealised chromatogram. How can the resolution between
two peaks be evaluated from such a plot?
Question 6.2 What are the causes of peak broadening and which of the terms in the rate
equation take them into account?
68
Question number 6.1
The answer to this question can be found on slide 41 which shows a
stylised chromatogram and the equation for determining the resolution
between two peaks.
Note that adjusted or absolute retention times can be used, also note
that the width (w) is found by approximating the peak to a triangle this is
why a resolution of 1.5 is required for 100% separation.
69
Question number 6.2
The answer to this question may be found on slides 43 - 57.
There are a number of factors which cause peak broadening these are summarised in the
Van Deemter equation:
The A, B and C terms may be defined in terms of a number of variables which the
chromatographer can control; such as column length, diameter and thickness of the
stationary phase and the nature of both the stationary and mobile phases.
In addition the mobile phase flow rate, as shown by the rate equation, also affects the
peak broadening.
70