Chapter 3

Chapter 3
Wireless Networking
Wireless Networking 3-1

Chapter 3: Outline
Chapter goal: Overview/Roadmap:
 Introduction to Wireless Networks
 Introduce basic terminology  Development of Wireless Networks
and concepts related to  Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks
WLAN and WPAN  Wireless Data Services
 Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
 approach:
 Integrated Services Digital Network
 use various  Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)
communication standards  Personal Communication Services
as example (PCS)
 Protocols for Network Access
 Wireless LAN Technology
 Bluetooth and Wireless PAN

Chapter 3: Roadmap
1.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks
1.2 Development of Wireless Networks
1.3 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks
1.4 Wireless Data Services
1.5 Common Channel Signaling (CCS)
1.6 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
1.7 Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)
1.8 Personal Communication Services (PCS)
1.9 Protocols for Network Access
1.10 Wireless LAN Technology
1.11 Bluetooth and Wireless PAN

Introduction to Wireless Networks (1)
 The demand for
ubiquitous personal
communications is
driving the
development of new
networking
techniques that
accommodate mobile
voice and data users
who move
throughout
buildings, cities, or
countries.
 Consider the cellular
telephone system.
© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-4

 Coverage Region
 The cellular telephone
system is responsible for
providing coverage
throughout a particular
territory, called a coverage
region or market.
 Interconnection
 The interconnection of
many such systems defines
a wireless network capable
of providing service to
mobile users throughout a
country or continent.

 Integrated network of base
stations
 To provide wireless
communications within a particular
geographic region (a city, for
example), an integrated network of
base stations must be deployed to
provide sufficient radio coverage to
all mobile users.
 MSC
 The base stations, in turn, must be
connected to a central hub called
the mobile switching center (MSC).
 The MSC provides connectivity
between the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) and the
numerous base stations, and
ultimately between all of the
wireless subscribers in a system.
 PSTN
 The PSTN forms the global
telecommunications grid which
connects conventional (landline)
telephone switching centers
(called central offices) with
MSCs throughout the world.

 Common Air Interface (CAI)
 To connect mobile subscribers to the
base stations, radio links are
established using a carefully defined
communication protocol called
common air interface (CAI) which in
essence is a precisely defined
handshake communication protocol.
 The common air interface specifies
exactly how mobile subscribers and
base stations communicate over radio
frequencies and also defines the
control channel signaling methods.
 The CAI must provide a great deal of
channel reliability to ensure that data
is properly sent and received between
the mobile and the base station, and as
such specifies speech and channel
coding.

 At the base station, the air interface portion
(i.e., signaling and synchronization data) of
the mobile transmission is discarded, and
the remaining voice traffic is passed along
to the MSC on fixed networks.
 While each base station may handle on the
order of 50 simultaneous calls, a typical
MSC is responsible for connecting as many
as 100 base stations to the PSTN (as many
as 5,000 calls at one time), so the
connection between the MSC and the
PSTN requires substantial capacity at any
instant of time.
 It becomes clear that networking strategies
and standards may vary widely depending
on whether a single voice circuit or an
entire metropolitan population is served.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Development of Wireless Networks (1)
 First Generation Wireless Networks
 First generation cellular and cordless telephone networks are
based on analog technology.
 All first generation cellular systems use FM modulation, and
cordless telephones use a single base station to communicate
with a single portable terminal.
 A typical example of a first generation cellular telephone
system is the Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS)
system used in the United States.
 Basically, all first generation systems use the transport
architecture as shown in Figure.

 Communication signaling between mobile, base station, and
MSC in first generation wireless networks.

 first generation cellular radio network

 First Generation Wireless
Networks
 first generation cellular radio
network
• MSC
– the system control for each
market resides in the MSC,
which maintains all mobile
related information and
controls each mobile handoff.
– The MSC also performs all of
the network management
functions, such as call
handling and processing,
billing, and fraud detection
within the market.

 First Generation Wireless
Networks
 first generation cellular radio
network
• MSC
– The MSC is interconnected with
the PSTN via landline trunked
lines (trunks) and a tandem
switch.
– MSCs also are connected with
other MSCs via dedicated
signaling channels for exchange
of location, validation, and call
signaling information.

 The North American Cellular Network architecture used to provide user
traffic and signaling traffic between MSCs
• The PSTN is a separate network from the SS7 signaling network.
• In modern cellular telephone systems, long distance voice traffic is carried on
the PSTN, but the signaling information used to provide call set-up and to
inform MSCs about a particular user is carried on the SS7 network.

 The North American Cellular Network architecture used to provide user
traffic and signaling traffic between MSCs
• First generation wireless systems provide analog speech and
inefficient, low-rate, data transmission between the base station and
the mobile user.
• However, the speech signals are usually digitized using a standard,
time division multiplex format for transmission between the base
station and the MSC and are always digitized for distribution from the
MSC to the PSTN.

 The global cellular network is required to keep track of all
mobile users that are registered in all markets throughout the
network, so that it is possible to forward incoming calls to
roaming users at any location throughout the world.
 When a mobile user's phone is activated but is not involved in
a call, it monitors the strongest control channel in the vicinity.
 When the user roams into a new market covered by a different
service provider, the wireless network must register the user
in the new area and cancel its registration with the previous
service provider so that calls may be routed to the roamer as it
moves through the coverage areas of different MSCs.

 Second Generation Wireless Networks
 Second generation wireless systems employ digital
modulation and advanced call processing capabilities.
 Examples of second generation wireless systems include the
• Global System for Mobile (GSM),
• the TDMA and CDMA U.S. digital standards (the
Telecommunications Industry Association IS-54 and 1S-95 standards),
• Second Generation Cordless Telephone (CT2),
• the British standard for cordless telephony,
• the Personal Access Communications System (PACS) local loop
standard, and
• Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT), which is the European
standard for cordless and office telephony.

 Second generation wireless networks have introduced new
network architectures that have reduced the computational
burden of the MSC.
• GSM has introduced the concept of a base station controller (BSC)
which is inserted between several base stations and the MSC.
• In PACS(WACS, the BSC is called a radio port control unit.
• This architectural change has allowed the data interface between the
base station controller and the MSC to be standardized, thereby
allowing carriers to use different manufacturers for MSC and BSC
components.
• This trend in standardization and interoperability is new to second
generation wireless networks.
• Eventually, wireless network components, such as the MSC and BSC,
will be available as off-the-shelf components, much like their wireline
telephone counterparts.

 All second generation systems use digital voice coding and
digital modulation.
 The systems employ dedicated control channels (common
channel signaling) within the air interface for simultaneously
exchanging voice and control information between the
subscriber, the base station, and the MSC while a call is in
progress.
 Second generation systems also provide dedicated voice and
signaling trunks between MSCs, and between each MSC and
the PSTN.

 In contrast to first generation systems, which were designed
primarily for voice, second generation wireless networks have
been specifically designed to provide paging, and other data
services such as facsimile and high-data rate network access.
 The network controlling structure is more distributed in
second generation wireless systems, since mobile stations
assume greater control functions.
 In second generation wireless networks, the handoff process is
mobile-controlled and is known as mobile assisted handoff
(MAHO).
 The mobile units in these networks perform several other
functions not performed by first generation subscriber units,
such as received power reporting, adjacent base station
scanning, data encoding, and encryption.

 DECT is an example of a second generation cordless
telephone standard which allows each cordless phone to
communicate with any of a number of base stations, by
automatically selecting the base station with the greatest
signal level.
 In DECT, the base stations have greater control in terms of
switching, signaling, and controlling handoffs.
 In general, second generation systems have been designed to
reduce the computational and switching burden at the base
station or MSC, while providing more flexibility in the
channel allocation scheme so that systems may be deployed
rapidly and in a less coordinated manner.

 Third Generation Wireless Networks
 Third generation wireless systems will evolve from mature
second generation systems.
 The aim of third generation wireless networks is to provide a
single set of standards that can meet a wide range of wireless
applications and provide universal access throughout the
world.
 In third generation wireless systems, the distinctions between
cordless telephones and cellular telephones will disappear,
and a universal personal communicator (a personal handset)
will provide access to a variety of voice, data, and video
communication services.

 Third generation systems will use the Broadband Integrated
Services Digital Network (B-ISDN) to provide access to
information networks, such as the Internet and other public
and private databases.
 Third generation networks will carry many types of
information (voice, data, and video), will operate in varied
regions (dense or sparsely populated regions), and will serve
both stationary users and vehicular users traveling at high
speeds.
 Packet radio communications will likely be used to distribute
network control while providing a reliable information
transfer.

 The terms Personal Communication System (PCS) and
Personal Communication Network (PCN) are used to imply
emerging third generation wireless systems for hand-held
devices.
 Other names for PCS include Future Public Land Mobile
Telecommunication Systems (FPLMTS) for worldwide use
which has more recently been called International Mobile
Telecommunication (IMT-2000), and Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS) for advanced mobile
personal services in Europe.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks (1)
 The amount of traffic capacity required in a wireless
network is highly dependent upon the type of traffic
carried.
 For example, a subscriber's telephone call (voice traffic)
requires dedicated network access to provide real-time
communications, whereas control and signaling traffic
may be bursty in nature and may be able to share
network resources with other bursty users.
 Alternatively, some traffic may have an urgent delivery
schedule while some may have no need to be sent in
real-time.
 The type of traffic carried by a network determines the
routing services, protocols, and call handling techniques
which must be employed.
 Two general routing services are provided by networks.
 connection- oriented services (virtual circuit routing)
 connectionless services (datagram services)
 In connection-oriented routing
 the communications path between the message source and
destination is fixed for the entire duration of the message, and a call
set-up procedure is required to dedicate network resources to both
the called and calling parties.
 Since the path through the network is fixed, the traffic in
connection-oriented routing arrives at the receiver in the exact order
it was transmitted.
 A connection-oriented service relies heavily on error control coding
to provide data protection in case the network connection becomes
noisy.
 If coding is not sufficient to protect the traffic, the call is broken,
and the entire message must be retransmitted from the beginning.
 Connectionless routing
 does not establish a firm connection for the traffic, and instead
relies on packet-based transmissions.
 Several packets form a message, and each individual packet in a
connectionless service is routed separately.
 Successive packets within the same message might travel
completely different routes and encounter widely varying delays
throughout the network.
 Packets sent using connectionless routing do not necessarily
arrive in the order of transmission and must to be reordered at
the receiver.
 Because packets take different routes in a connectionless
service, some packets may be lost due to network or link failure,
however others may get through with sufficient redundancy to
enable the entire, message to be recreated at the receiver.

 Connectionless routing
 Thus, connectionless routing often avoids having to retransmit
an entire message, but requires more overhead information for
each packet.
 Typical packet overhead information includes
• the packet source address,
• the destination address,
• the routing information, and
• information needed to properly order packets at the receiver.
 In a connectionless service, a call set-up procedure is not
required at the beginning of a call, and each message burst is
treated independently by the network.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Wireless Data Services (1)
 Circuit switching is inefficient
 for dedicated mobile data services such as facsimile (fax),
electronic mail (e-mail), and short messaging.
 First generation cellular systems
 that provide data communications using circuit switching
 have difficulty passing modem signals through the audio
filters of receivers designed for analog, FM, common air-
interfaces.
 Inevitably, voice filtering must be deactivated when data is
transmitted over first generation cellular networks, and a
dedicated data link must be established over the common air-
interface.

 The demand for packet data services has, until recently,
been significantly less than the demand for voice
services, and first generation subscriber equipment
design has focused almost solely on voice-only cellular
communications.
 However, in 1993, the U.S. cellular industry developed
the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) standard to
coexist with the conventional voice only cellular
system.
 In the 1980s, two other data-only mobile services called
ABDIS and RMD were developed to provide packet
radio connectivity throughout a network.

 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
 CDPD is a data service for first and second generation U.S.
cellular systems and uses a full 30 kHz AMPS channel on a
shared basis.
 CDPD provides mobile packet data connectivity to existing
data networks and other cellular systems without any
additional bandwidth requirements.
 It also capitalizes on the unused air time which occurs
between successive radio channel assignments by the MSC (it
is estimated that for 30% of the time, a particular cellular
radio channel is unused, so packet data may be transmitted
until that channel is selected by the MSC to provide a voice
circuit).

 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
 The CDPD Network

 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems (ARDIS)
 Advance Radio Data Information Systems (ARDIS) is a
private network service provided by Motorola and IBM and is
based on MDC 4800 and RD-LAP (Radio Data Link Access
Procedure) protocols developed at Motorola.
 ARDIS provides 800 MHz two-way mobile data
communications for short-length radio messages in urban and
in-building environments, and for users traveling at low
speeds.
 Short ARDIS messages have low retry rates but high packet
overhead, while long messages spread the overhead over the
length of the packet but have a higher retry rate.
 ARDIS has been deployed to provide excellent in-building
penetration, and large-scale spatial antenna diversity is used to
receive messages from mobile users.

 When a mobile sends a packet, many base stations which are
tuned to the transmission frequency attempt to detect and
decode the transmission, in order to provide diversity
reception for the case when multiple mobiles contend for the
reverse link.
 In this manner, ARDIS base stations are able to insure
detection of simultaneous transmissions, as long as the users
are sufficiently separated in space.
 Table lists some characteristics for ARDIS.

 Channel characteristics for ARDIS.

 RAM Mobile Data (RMD)
 RAM Mobile Data (RMD) is a public, two-way data service
based upon the Mobitex protocol developed by Ericsson.
 RAM provides street level coverage for short and long
messages for users moving in an urban environment.
 RAM has data and facsimile, Fax messages are transmitted as
normal text to a gateway processor, which then converts the
radio message to an appropriate format by merging it with a
background page.
 Thus, the packet-switched wireless transmission of a normal
length message instead of a much larger fax image, even
though the end-user receives what appears to be a standard
fax.

 RAM Mobile Data (RMD)
 Channel characteristics for RAM mobile data

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Common Channel Signaling (CCS) (1)
 Digital communications technique
 that provides simultaneous transmission of user data, signaling
data, and other related traffic throughout a network.
 Out-of-band signaling
 This is accomplished by using out-of-band signaling channels
which logically separate the network data from the user
information (voice or data) on the same channel.
 For second generation wireless communications
systems,
 CCS is used to pass user data and control/supervisory signals between the
subscriber and the base station, between the base station and the MSC, and
between MSCs.
 Even though the concept of CCS implies dedicated,
parallel channels,
 it is implemented in a TDM format for serial data transmissions.

 Before the introduction of CCS in the 1980s, signaling
traffic between the MSC and a subscriber was carried in
the same band as the end-user's audio.
 The network control data passed between MSCs in the
PSTN was also carried in-band, requiring that network
information be carried within the same channel as the
subscriber's voice traffic throughout the PSTN.
 This technique, called in-band signaling, reduced the
capacity of the PSTN, since the network signaling data
rates were greatly constrained by the limitations of the
carried voice channels, and the PSTN was forced to
sequentially (not simultaneously) handle signaling and
user data for each call.

 CCS is an out-of-band signaling technique which allows much
faster communications between two nodes within the PSTN.
 Instead of being constrained to signaling data rates which are on
the order of audio frequencies, CCS supports signaling data rates
from 56 kbps to many megabits per second.
 Thus, network signaling data is carried in a seemingly parallel,
out-of-band, signaling channel while only user data is carried on
the PSTN.
 CCS provides a substantial increase in the number of users which
are served by trunked PSTN lines, but requires that a dedicated
portion of the trunk time be used to provide a signaling channel
used for network traffic.
 In first generation cellular systems, the SS7 family of protocols,
as defined by the Integrated System Digital Network (ISDN) are
used to provide CCS.

 Since network signaling traffic is bursty and of short
duration, the signaling channel may be operated in a
connectionless fashion where packet data transfer
techniques are efficiently used.
 CCS generally uses variable length packet sizes and a
layered protocol structure.
 The expense of a parallel signaling channel is minor
compared to the capacity improvement offered by CCS
throughout the PSTN, and often the same physical
network connection (i.e., a fiber optic cable) carries
both the user traffic and the network signaling data.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (1)
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISIDN) is a
complete network framework designed around the
concept of common channel signaling.
 While telephone users throughout the world rely on the
PSTN to carry conventional voice traffic, new end-user
data and signaling services can be provided with a
parallel, signaling network.
 ISDN defines the dedicated signaling network that has
been created to complement the PSTN for more flexible
and efficient network access and signaling, and may be
thought of as a parallel world-wide network for
signaling traffic that can be used to either route voice
traffic on the PSTN or to provide new data services
between network nodes and the end-users.
 ISDN provides two distinct kinds of signaling components to
end-users in a telecommunications network.
 The first component supports traffic between the end-user and the
network, and is called access signaling.
 Access signaling defines how end-users obtain access to the
PSTN and the ISDN for communications or services, and is
governed by a suite of protocols known as the Digital Subscriber
Signaling System number 1 (DSS1).
 The second signaling component of ISDN is network signaling,
and is governed by the SS7 suite of protocols.
 For wireless communications systems, the SS7 protocols within
ISDN are critical to providing backbone network connectivity
between MSCs throughout the world, as they provide network
interfaces for common channel signaling traffic.

 ISDN provides a complete digital interface between
end-users over twisted pair telephone lines.
 The ISDN interface is divided into three different types
of channels.
 Information bearing channels called bearer channels (B
channels) are used exclusively for end-user traffic
(voice, data, video).
 Out-of-band signaling channels, called data channels (D
channels), are used to send signaling and control
information across the interface to end-users.
 ISDN provides integrated end-user access to both
circuit-switched and packet switched networks with
digital end-to-end connectivity.

 ISDN

 ISDN end-users may select between two different interfaces, the basic
rate interface (BRI) or the primary rate interface (PRI).
 The BRI is intended to serve small capacity terminals (such as single
line telephones) while the PRI is intended for large capacity terminals
(such as PBXs).
 The B channels support 64 kbps data for both the primary rate and the
basic rate interfaces.
 The D channel supports 64 kbps for the primary rate and 16 kbps for
the basic rate.
 The BRI provides two 64 kbps bearer channels and one 16 kbps
signaling channel (2B+D), whereas the PRI provides twenty-three 64
kbps bearer channels and one 64 kbps signaling channel (23B+D) for
North America and Japan.
 In Europe, the primary rate interface provides thirty basic information
channels and one 64 kbps signaling channel (30B+D). The PRI
service is designed to be carried by DS-1 or CEPT level I links

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) (1)
 The SS7 signaling protocol is widely used for common
channel signaling between interconnected networks.
 SS7 is used to interconnect most of the cellular MSCs
throughout the U.S., and is the key factor in enabling
autonomous registration and automated roaming in first
generation cellular systems.

 SS7 is an outgrowth of the out-of band signaling first developed
by the CCITT under common channel signaling standard, CCS
No. 6.
 Further work caused SS7 to evolve along the lines of the ISO-OSI
seven layer network definition, where a highly layered structure
(transparent from layer to layer) is used to provide network
communications.
 Peer layers in the ISO model communicate with each other
through a virtual (packet data) interface, and a hierarchical
interface structure is established.
 A comparison of the OSI-7 network model and the 557 protocol
standard is given in Figure 9.14.
 The lowest three layers of the OSI model are handled in SS7 by
the network service part (NSP) of the protocol, which in turn is
made up of three message transfer parts (MTPs) and the signaling
connection control pan (SCCP) of the SS7 protocol.
 SS7 Protocol Architecture

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Personal Communication Services (PCS) (1)
 The objective of personal communication systems
(PCS) or personal communication networks (PCNs)
 to provide ubiquitous wireless communications coverage,
 enabling users to access the telephone network for different
types of communication needs, without regard for the location
of the user or the location of the information being accessed.

 The concept of PCS/PCN is based on an advanced
intelligent network (AIN).
 The mobile and fixed networks will be integrated to
provide universal access to the network and its
databases.
 AIN will also allow its users to have a single telephone
number to be used for both wireless and wireline
services.
 An architecture suggested by Ashity, Sheikh, and
Murthy consists of three levels: the intelligent level, the
transport level and the access level.

 The intelligent level contains databases for the storage of
information about the network users, the transport level handles
the transmission of information, and the access level provides
ubiquitous access to every user in the network and contains
databases that update the location of each user in the network.
 Personal communication systems will be characterized by high
user densities that will require enhanced network requirements.
 A large amount of signaling will be required for efficient
working of these networks.
 Common channel signaling and efficient signaling protocols will
play an important role in PCS/PCN.
 The intelligent networks that will be put to use for PCN will
employ SS7 signaling.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Protocols for Network Access (1)
 A packet radio contention technique may be used to
transmit on a common channel.
 ALOHA protocols are the best example of a contention
technique where the users transmit whenever they have
data.
 The users listen to the acknowledgment feedback to
determine if a transmission has been successful or not.
 In case of a collision, the subscriber units wait a random
amount of time and retransmit the packet.
 The advantage of packet contention techniques is the
ability to serve a large number of terminals with
extremely low overhead.

Protocols for Network Access (2)
 Mobile transmitters sending bursty traffic in the form of data
packets to a common base-station receiver can use random
access.
 Ideal channel throughput can be doubled if active terminals are
prepared to synchronize their packet transmissions into common
time slots, such that the risk of partial packet overlap is avoided.
 With high traffic loads, both unslotted and slotted ALOHA
protocols become inefficient, since the free competition between
all transmitters exposes most of the offered data traffic to
collisions, and thus results in multiple retransmissions and
increased delays.
 To reduce this kind of situation, carrier sense multiple access
(CSMA) can be used where the transmitter first listens either to
the common radio channel or to a dedicated acknowledgment
return channel from the base station.

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Characteristics of WLAN
 Attenuation
 The strength of electromagnetic signals decreases rapidly because the
signal disperses in all directions
 The situation becomes worse with mobile senders that operate on batteries
and normally have small power supplies.
 Interference
 receiver may receive signals not only from the intended sender, but also
from other senders if they are using the same frequency band.
 Multipath propagation
 receiver receives some signals at different phases (because they travel
different paths).
 This makes the signal less recognizable.
 Error
 errors and error detection are more serious issues in a wireless network
© Data Communications and Networking, 5 th ed, Behrouz A. Forouzan Wireless Networking 3-65
Access Control
 How a wireless host can get access to the shared medium (air).
 CSMA/CD algorithm does not work in wireless LANs:
1. To detect a collision, a host needs to needs to work in a duplex mode
2. Hidden Station Problem
3. The distance between stations can be great.

• Signal fading could prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision
at the other end.
 CSMA/CA
IEEE 802.11
 Specification for
 physical and data-link layers
 Different names
 wireless Ethernet
 WiFi (short for wireless fidelity) – wifi alliance
 Wireless LAN
IEEE 802.11 – Architecture (1)
 Two kinds of services:
 Basic Service Set (BSS)
 Extended Service Set (ESS)
 BSS
 Basic building block
 made of stationary or mobile wireless
stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP).
 Adhoc architecture
 The BSS without an AP
 stand-alone network
 cannot send data to other BSSs
 Stations can form a network without the
need of an AP; they can locate one
another and agree to be part of a BSS.
 Infrastructure architecture
 A BSS with an AP
 Extended Service Set (ESS)
 made up of two or more BSSs with APs
 BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is a
wired or a wireless network.
 The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
 IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can
be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet.
 In ESS
 two types of stations: mobile and stationary
• The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS.
• The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a
wired LAN.
 In ESS
 Communication between a station in a BSS and the outside
BSS occurs via the AP.
 Similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider
each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be a base station.
 Station Types
• Based on their mobility in a WLAN
 no-transition
• A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary
(not moving) or moving only inside a BSS.
 BSS-transition
• A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from
one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside
one ESS.
 ESS-transition
• A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from
one ESS to another.
MAC Sublayer
 IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers:
 distributed coordination function (DCF)
 point coordination function (PCF).
DCF (1)
 Access method :
CSMA/CA
 Frame Exchange
Timeline
1. Sender sense the medium
a. Found channel idle
b. wait for DIFS
sends request to send
(RTS).
2. Receiver receives RTS
wait SIFS
sends clear to send (CTS)
3. source sends data after
waiting SIFS
4. destination send ack after
waiting SIFS.
DCF (2)
 Network Allocation Vector
 collision avoidance
 RTS frame includes the duration
of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
 The stations that are affected by
this transmission create a timer
called NAV that shows how
much time must pass before
these stations are allowed to
check the channel for idleness.
 Each time a station accesses the
system and sends an RTS frame,
other stations start their NAV.
 In other words, each station,
before sensing the physical
medium to see if it is idle, first
checks its NAV to see if it has
expired.
DCF (3)
 Collision During Handshaking
 Handshaking period
• Time when RTS or CTS frames
are in transition
 Two or more stations may try to
send RTS frames at the same
time.
 These control frames may
collide.
 However, because there is no
mechanism for collision
detection, the sender assumes
there has been a collision if it has
not received a CTS frame from
the receiver.
 The backoff strategy is
employed, and the sender tries
again.
DCF (4)
 Hidden-Station Problem
 The solution to the hidden
station problem is the use of the
handshake frames (RTS and
CTS).
 RTS message from A reaches B,
but not C.
 However, because both A and C
are within the range of B, the
CTS message, which contains
the duration of data transmission
from B to A, reaches C.
 Station C knows that some
hidden station is using the
channel and refrains from
transmitting until that duration
is over.
PCF (1)
 Features
 Optional
 Implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc network)
 On top of the DCF
 Used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.
 Polling
 Centralized, contention-free polling access method
 The AP performs polling for stations that are capable of being polled.
 The stations are polled one after another, sending any data they have to
the AP.
 PIFS
 To give priority to PCF over DCF, another interframe space, PIFS, has
been defined.
 PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than DIFS.
 This means that if, at the same time, a station wants to use only DCF and
an AP wants to use PCF, the AP has priority.
PCF (2)
 Priority of PCF over DCF
 Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use
DCF may not gain access to the medium.
 Repetition Interval
 Designed to cover both contention-free PCF and contention-
based DCF traffic.
 starts with a special control frame, called a beacon frame.
 When the stations hear the beacon frame, they start their
NAV for the duration of the contention-free period of the
repetition interval.
 During the repetition interval, the PC (point controller) can
send a poll frame, receive data, send an ACK, receive an
ACK, or do any combination of these (802.11 uses
piggybacking).
 CF end (contention-free end) frame
PCF (3)
 Example of Repetition Interval
Fragmentation
 The wireless environment is very noisy
 so frames are often corrupted.
 A corrupt frame has to be retransmitted.
 Fragmentation—the division of a large frame into
smaller ones.
 It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large
one.
Frame Format (1)
 Nine fields
Frame Format (2)
 Frame Control (FC)
 Defines the type of frame and some control information.
Frame Format (3)
 D
 Duration of the transmission that is used to set the value of NAV
 In one control frame, it defines the ID of the frame.
 Addresses
 There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long.
 The meaning of each address field depends on the value of the To DS and
From DS subfields.
 Sequence control (SC)
 The first four bits define the fragment number;
 The last 12 bits define the sequence number, which is the same in all
fragments.
Frame Format (4)
 Frame body
 contains information based on the type and the subtype
defined in the FC field.
 FCS
 The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error-
detection sequence.
Frame Types
 Categories of frames:
 Management frames
 Control frames
 Data frames
 Management Frames
 Used for the initial communication between stations and
access points.
 Control Frames
 Used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames.
 Data Frames
 Used for carrying data information.
Control Frames
 For control frames the value of the type field is 01; the values of
the subtype fields for frames
Addressing Mechanism (1)
 Four cases
 Address 1 is always the address of the next device that the frame will visit.
 Address 2 is always the address of the previous device that the frame has left.
 Address 3 is the address of the final destination station if it is not defined by
address 1 or the original source station if it is not defined by address 2.
 Address 4 is the original source when the distribution system is also wireless.
 Case 1: 00
 In this case, To DS 0 and From DS 0.
 Frame is not going to a distribution system (To DS 0) and is not coming from a
distribution system (From DS 0).
 The frame is going from one station in a BSS to another without passing through
the distribution system.
 Case 2: 01
 Frame is coming from a distribution system (From DS 1).
 The frame is coming from an AP and going to a station.
 Note that address 3 contains the original sender of the frame (in another BSS).
 Case 3: 10
 Frame is going to a distribution system (To DS 1).
 The frame is going from a station to an AP.
 The ACK is sent to the original station.
 Note that address 3 contains the final destination of the frame in the distribution
system.
 Case 4: 11
 This is the case in which the distribution system is also wireless.
 The frame is going from one AP to another AP in a wireless distribution system.
 Here, we need four addresses to define the original sender, the final destination,
and two intermediate APs.
Exposed Station Problem (1)
 A station refrains from using a channel when it is, in fact,
available.
 Station A is transmitting to station B.
 Station C has some data to send to station D, which can be sent
without interfering with the transmission from A to B.
 Problem
 Station C is exposed to transmission from A; it hears what A is sending
and thus refrains from sending.
 The handshaking messages RTS and CTS cannot help in this
case.
 Station C hears the RTS from A and refrains from sending, even
though the communication between C and D cannot cause a
collision in the zone between A and C; station C cannot know
that station A’s transmission does not affect the zone between C
and D.
Physical Layer
 All implementations, except the infrared, operate in the
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band
 ISM Bands - three unlicensed bands
 902–928 MHz
 2.400–2.4835 GHz
 5.725–5.850 GHz
IEEE Technique Band Modulation Rate (Mbps)
802.11 FHSS 2.400-2.4835 GHz FSK 1 and 2
DSSS 2.400-2.4835 GHz PSK 1 and 2
None Infrared PPM 1 and 2
802.11b DSSS 2.400-2.4835 GHz PSK 5.5 and 11
802.11a OFDM 5.725 – 5.850 GHz PSK or QAM 6 to 54
802.11g OFDM 2.400-2.4835 GHz Different 22 and 54
802.11n OFDM 2.400-2.4835 GHz Different 600
5.725 – 5.850 GHz
IEEE 802.11 FHSS
 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 2.400–2.4835 GHz ISM band
• Divided into 79 subbands of 1 MHz (and some guard bands).
 A pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence.
 The modulation technique
• two-level FSK or four-level FSK with 1 or 2 bits/baud, which results in a data
rate of 1 or 2 Mbps
IEEE 802.11 DSSS
 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 2.400–2.4835 GHz ISM band
 The modulation technique in this specification is PSK at 1
Mbaud/s.
 The system allows 1 or 2 bits/baud (BPSK or QPSK), which
results in a data rate of 1 or 2 Mbps
IEEE 802.11 Infrared
 Infrared
 uses infrared light in the range of 800 to 950 nm.
 The modulation technique is called pulse position modulation (PPM).
 For a 1-Mbps data rate, a 4-bit sequence is first mapped into a 16-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0.
 For a 2-Mbps data rate, a 2-bit sequence is first mapped into a 4-bit
sequence in which only one bit is set to 1 and the rest are set to 0.
 The mapped sequences are then converted to optical signals; the presence
of light specifies 1, the absence of light specifies 0.
IEEE 802.11b DSSS
 High-Rate Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (HRDSSS)
 2.400–2.4835 GHz ISM band.
 HR-DSSS is similar to DSSS except for the encoding method, which is
called complementary code keying (CCK).
 CCK encodes 4 or 8 bits to one CCK symbol.
 To be backward compatible with DSSS, HR-DSSS defines four data rates:
1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps.
 The first two use the same modulation techniques as DSSS.
 The 5.5-Mbps version uses BPSK and transmits at 1.375 Mbaud/s with 4-
bit CCK encoding.
 The 11-Mbps version uses QPSK and transmits at 1.375 Mbaud/s with 8-
bit CCK encoding
IEEE 802.11a OFDM
 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
 5.725–5.850 GHz ISM band.
 OFDM is similar to FDM with one major difference:
• All the subbands are used by one source at a given time.
 Sources contend with one another at the data-link layer for access.
 The band is divided into 52 subbands
• 48 subbands for sending 48 groups of bits at a time
• 4 subbands for control information
 Dividing the band into subbands diminishes the effects of
interference.
 If the subbands are used randomly, security can also be increased.
 OFDM uses PSK and QAM for modulation.
 The common data rates are 18 Mbps (PSK) and 54 Mbps (QAM).
IEEE 802.11g
 Defines forward error correction and OFDM
 2.400–4.835 GHz ISM band.
 The modulation technique achieves a 22- or 54-
Mbps data rate.
 It is backward-compatible with 802.11b, but the
modulation technique is OFDM.
IEEE 802.11n
 next generation of wireless LAN
 Band: 2.4/5GHz
 Goal: to increase the throughput of 802.11 wireless LANs.
 The new standard emphasizes not only the higher bit rate but
also eliminating some unnecessary overhead.
 MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output antenna) to overcome
the noise problem in wireless LANs.
 Idea: if we can send multiple output signals and receive multiple
input signals, we are in a better position to eliminate noise.
 Some implementations of this project have reached up to 600
Mbps data rate.
IEEE 802.11ac (1)
 Very High Throughput (VHT) applications
 Backward compatible with IEEE 802.11n
 Designed only for 5GHz band
 Important features that improves network capacity and efficiency
 Beamforming
 MU-MIMO (multi user MIMO)
 Data rates – 6.9Gbps
 Channel bonding
• Each channel: 20 MHz wide, combine 8 of these to get 160 mhz channel for single
client
 Higher modulation
• 256QAM, 4 times denser than 64QAM of 802.11n, 4times more bits per symbol
 Spatial streams
• Upto 8 spatial streams are possible
IEEE 802.11ac (2)
 SU-MIMO vs MU-MIMO
IEEE 802.11ax (1)
 WiFi 6, High Efficiency Wireless LAN (HEW)
 Uses both 2.4 and 5 GHz bands
 WiFi 6E – 6GHz band
 Data rates – 9.6 gbps
 1024 QAM
 MU-MIMO, beamforming
 OFDMA
 orthogonal frequency division multiple access
IEEE 802.11ax (2)
 OFDMA
 orthogonal frequency division multiple access
 OFDMA is a multi-user version of OFDM enabling concurrent AP
communication (uplink & downlink) with multiple clients by assigning
subsets of subcarriers, called Resource Units (RUs) to the individual
clients.
 Multiple users can be transmitting at the same time, each using its
allocated set of OFDM subcarriers
 OFDMA divides up the spectrum and allocates it to multiple different
users if necessary
 The main benefit of OFDMA is that it allows an AP to allocate the whole
channel to a single user at a time or it may partition a channel to serve
multiple users simultaneously.
 OFDMA is ideal for low bandwidth applications and results in better
frequency reuse, reduced latency, and increased efficiency.
WiFi Generations
Wi-Fi Generations
Maximum Radio
IEEE
Generation Linkrate Adopted Frequency
Standard
(Mbit/s) (GHz)
Wi‑Fi 7 802.11be 40000 TBA 2.4/5/6
Wi‑Fi 6E 2020 2.4/5/6
802.11ax 600 to 9608
Wi‑Fi 6 2019 2.4/5
Wi‑Fi 5 802.11ac 433 to 6933 2014 5
Wi‑Fi 4 802.11n 72 to 600 2008 2.4/5
(Wi-Fi 3*) 802.11g 6 to 54 2003 2.4
(Wi-Fi 2*) 802.11a 6 to 54 1999 5
(Wi-Fi 1*) 802.11b 1 to 11 1999 2.4
(Wi-Fi 0*) 802.11 1 to 2 1997 2.4
*: (Wi-Fi 0, 1, 2, 3, are unbranded common usage)
© https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11 Wireless Networking 3-109

Chapter 3: Roadmap

Bluetooth (1)
 Wireless PAN technology
 Connection of Devices
 telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop),
cameras, printers, and even coffee makers
 when they are at a short distance from each other
 Adhoc Network
 Bluetooth PAN is an ad hoc network
 Formed spontaneously
 Devices find each other and make a network called a piconet
 Can be connected to Internet
 Can not be large
Bluetooth (2)
 Applications
 Peripheral devices connection with computer
• wireless mouse or keyboard
 Monitoring devices
• can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center.
 Home security devices
• can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main
security controller.
 Conference attendees
• can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference.
Bluetooth (3)
 History
 Ericsson Company
 It is named for Harald Blaatand, the king of Denmark
 Blaatand translates to Bluetooth in English.
 IEEE 802.15
 Implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15
standard.
 The standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN)
operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
Architecture
 Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
 Piconet
 Scatternet
Piconet (1)
 piconet, or a small network
 up to eight stations
 one is primary
 rest are secondaries
 Synchronization
 All the secondary stations
synchronize their clocks and
hopping sequence with the
primary.
 only one primary station
 The communication between
the primary and secondary
stations
 one-to-one
 one-to-many
Piconet (2)
 Maximum of seven
secondaries
 Additional secondaries in
parked state.
 A secondary in a parked
state
 synchronized with the primary
 cannot take part in
communication until it is
moved from the parked state
to the active state.
 Only eight stations can be
active in a piconet
 activating a station from the
parked state means that an
active station must go to the
parked state.
Scatternet
 Piconets can be combined to form a scatternet.
 A station can be a member of two piconets.
 A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.
 This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as
a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the
second piconet.
Bluetooth Devices
 Built-in short-range radio transmitter
 Data rate is 1 Mbps with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth
 possibility of interference between the IEEE
802.11b wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs.
Bluetooth Layers
 Bluetooth Layers
L2CAP (1)
 Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP
 Roughly equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs
 Used for data exchange on an ACL link (Asynchronous
Communication Link)
 Not used for SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented) channels
 L2CAP Data packet format
L2CAP (2)
 Length
 Defines the size of the data, in bytes, coming from the upper
layers.
 Data can be up to 65,535 bytes.
 Channel ID
 The channel ID (CID) defines a unique identifier for the
virtual channel created at this level.
L2CAP (2)
 The L2CAP has specific duties:
 Multiplexing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Quality of service (QoS)
 Group management
L2CAP (3)
 Multiplexing
 At the sender site
• It accepts data from one of the upper-layer protocols,
frames them, and delivers them to the baseband layer.
 At the receiver site
• It accepts a frame from the baseband layer, extracts the
data, and delivers them to the appropriate protocol layer.
 It creates a kind of virtual channel
L2CAP (4)
 Segmentation and Reassembly
 The maximum size of the payload field in the baseband layer
is 2744 bits, or 343 bytes.
 This includes 4 bytes to define the packet and packet length.
 Therefore, the size of the packet that can arrive from an upper
layer can only be 339 bytes.
 Application layers sometimes need to send a data packet that
can be up to 65,535 bytes (an Internet packet, for example).
 The L2CAP divides these large packets into segments and
adds extra information to define the location of the segments
in the original packet.
 The L2CAP segments the packets at the source and
reassembles them at the destination.
L2CAP (5)
 QoS
 Bluetooth allows the stations to define a quality-of-service
level.
 best-effort service
 Group Management
 Allow devices to create a type of logical addressing between
themselves.
 Similar to multicasting
 For example, two or three secondary devices can be part of a
multicast group to receive data from the primary.
Baseband Layer (1)
 Roughly equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs
 Access method - TDMA
 Communication using time slots
 The primary and secondary stations communicate with each
other using time slots.
 The length of a time slot is 625 s
 During the time that one frequency is used, a primary sends a
frame to a secondary, or a secondary sends a frame to the
primary.
 Communication is only between the primary and a
secondary; secondaries cannot communicate directly
with one another.
Baseband Layer (2)
 TDMA
 TDD-TDMA (time-division duplex TDMA).
 TDD-TDMA is a kind of half-duplex communication in
which the sender and receiver send and receive data, but not
at the same time (half-duplex); however, the communication
for each direction uses different hops.
 This is similar to walkie-talkies
Baseband Layer (3)
 TDMA
 Single Secondary Communication
Baseband Layer (4)
 TDMA
 Multiple Secondary Communication
Baseband Layer (5)
 Links
 Two type of links can be created between primary and
secondary
• SCO Links (Synchronous Connection Oriented)
• ACL Links (Asynchronous Connectionless Links)
Baseband Layer (6)
 SCO Links
 used when avoiding latency (delay in data delivery) is more
important than integrity (error-free delivery).
 A physical link is created between the primary and a
secondary by reserving specific slots at regular intervals.
• The basic unit of connection is two slots, one for each direction.
 If a packet is damaged, it is never retransmitted.
 Used for real-time audio where avoiding delay is all-
important.
 A secondary can create up to three SCO links with the
primary, sending digitized audio (PCM) at 64 kbps in each
link.
Baseband Layer (7)
 ACL Links
 used when data integrity is more important than avoiding
latency.
 In this type of link, if a payload encapsulated in the frame is
corrupted, it is retransmitted.
 A secondary returns an ACL frame in the available odd-
numbered slot if the previous slot has been addressed to it.
 ACL can use one, three, or more slots and can achieve a
maximum data rate of 721 kbps.
Baseband Layer (8)
 Frame Format
 A frame in the baseband layer can be one of three types:
• One-slot
• Three-slot
• Five-slot
 A slot is 625 s
Baseband Layer (9)
 One slot Frame
 in a one-slot frame exchange, 259 s is needed for hopping
and control mechanisms.
 This means that a one-slot frame can last only 625 -259, or
366 s.
 With a 1-MHz bandwidth and 1 bit/Hz, the size of a one-slot
frame is 366 bits.
Baseband Layer (10)
 Three slot Frame
 Occupies three slots
 Since 259 s is used for hopping, the length of the frame is 3
625 -259 1616 s or 1616 bits.
 A device that uses a three-slot frame remains at the same hop
(at the same carrier frequency) for three slots.
 Even though only one hop number is used, three hop numbers
are consumed.
 That means the hop number for each frame is equal to the
first slot of the frame.
Baseband Layer (11)
 Five slot Frame
 A five-slot frame also uses 259 bits for hopping,
which means that the length of the frame is 5
×625 -259 2866 bits.
Baseband Layer (12)
 Frame Format Types
 Access code
• Contains synchronization bits and the identifier of the primary to
distinguish the frame of one piconet from that of another.
Baseband Layer (13)
 Header
• Address.
– The 3-bit address subfield can define up to seven secondaries (1
to 7).
– If the address is zero, it is used for broadcast communication
from the primary to all secondaries.
• Type. The 4-bit type subfield defines the type of data coming from the
upper layers.
Baseband Layer (14)
 Header
• F. This 1-bit subfield is for flow control. When set (1), it indicates that the
device is unable to receive more frames (buffer is full).
• A. This 1-bit subfield is for acknowledgment. Bluetooth uses Stop-and-Wait
ARQ; 1 bit is sufficient for acknowledgment.
• S. This 1-bit subfield holds a sequence number. Bluetooth uses Stop-and-Wait
ARQ; 1 bit is sufficient for sequence numbering.
Baseband Layer (15)
 Header
• HEC. Header Error Control
• The 8-bit header error correction subfield is a checksum to detect errors in each 18-bit
header section.
• The header has three identical 18-bit sections.
• The receiver compares these three sections, bit by bit.
• If each of the corresponding bits is the same, the bit is accepted; if not, the majority
opinion rules.
• This is a form of forward error correction (for the header only).
• This double error control is needed because the nature of the communication, via air, is
very noisy. Note that there is no retransmission in this sublayer.
Baseband Layer (16)
 Payload
• This subfield can be 0 to 2740 bits long.
• It contains data or control information coming from the upper layers.
Radio Layer (1)
 The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical
layer of the Internet model.
 Bluetooth devices are low-power and have a range of
10 m.
 Band
 Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels
of 1 MHz each.
Radio Layer (2)
 FHSS
 frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 Bluetooth hops 1600 times per second, which means that each
device changes its modulation frequency 1600 times per
second.
 A device uses a frequency for only 625 s (1/1600 s) before it
hops to another frequency; the dwell time is 625 s.
Radio Layer (3)
 Modulation
 GFSK (FSK with Gaussian bandwidth filtering)
 GFSK has a carrier frequency.
 Bit 1 is represented by a frequency deviation above the
carrier; bit 0 is represented by a frequency deviation below
the carrier.
 The frequencies, in megahertz, are defined according to the
following formula for each channel.
 For example, the first channel uses carrier frequency 2402

MHz (2.402 GHz), and the second channel uses carrier
frequency 2403 MHz (2.403 GHz).
END

Chapter 3 - Wireless Networking

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Chapter 3 - Wireless Networking

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 3 - Wireless Networking

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wireless Networking 3-1

Wireless Networking 3-2

Wireless Networking 3-3

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-4

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-5

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-7

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-8

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-9

Wireless Networking 3-10

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-11

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-12

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-13

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-14

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-15

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-16

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-17

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-18

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-19

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-20

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-21

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-22

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-23

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-24

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-25

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-26

Wireless Networking 3-27

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-30

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-31

Wireless Networking 3-32

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-33

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-34

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-35

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-36

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-37

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-38

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-39

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-40

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-41

Wireless Networking 3-42

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-43

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-44

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-45

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-46

Wireless Networking 3-47

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-49

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-50

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-51

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-52

Wireless Networking 3-53

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-54

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-56

Wireless Networking 3-57

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-58

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-59

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-60

Wireless Networking 3-61

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-62

© Wireless Communications – Principles & Practice, TS Rappaport Wireless Networking 3-63