LECTURE 10

Syntax
I’m pleased Allah is my GOD
I’m pleased Islam is my religion
I’m pleased Muhammad is my prophet
Oh God, Please give me knowledge
And help me to understand easily.
Language: A system of MEANING

Morphology
Syntax

semantics
Phonology
 The English prefixes syn-
• The prefixes syn- (sym-), from Greek = together.
• Examples:
• Synonym = together with another word, they have
similar meaning.
• To receive = to accept
• To do = to act, to operate, to perform, to behave
• House = home, residence, dwelling
• Food = nourishment, meal, baking, cooking.
• Student = scholar, pupil, graduate
 The meaning of SYNTAX

Prefixes: syn = together, with

Syn = syl, sym, sys
The root tax = arrangement
Syntax : the arrangement of words in
sentences
Synthesis, synchronize, synergetic, etc
 1. SYNTAX
1. The study of the relationship of
different elements of sentence to
one another.
2. Syntax is the branch of grammar
which is concerned with the study
of the arrangement of words in
sentences
 2. SYNTAX
3. Syntax is the study of rules of the
relationship of words the to one
another as expressions of ideas and
parts of structures of sentences,
4. The study and science of
sentence construction.
 3. SYNTAX
5. The study of how words combine to
form sentences and the rules which
governs the formation of sentences.(Jack
Richards, 1985)
6. The system of rules and categories
that underlies sentence formation n
human language
 The Aim
The aim of studying syntax :
learning to know how various parts of a
sentence relate to one another.
Example:
Parts of a sentence: S – V – O
Subject - Verb – Object
I – eat – an apple
 FOUR Syntactic components
1. Productive :
(to express a message)
2. Systematic:
(in accordance with syntactic rules)
3. Creative
(forming sentences which have never been heard /
written or expressed before)
4. Grammatical:
based on language rule.
 Layers of Language
1. Base component = Deep structure :
e.g. S – V – O = Subject-verb-object
2. Transformational Component
Surface structure = Syntax (sentence) :
3. Phonological component: sounding
(speech organs)
4. Semantic component; meaning
(the message, need to communicate )
 Example of SYNTAX
•Base component : Deep structure S-V-O
:

•Transformational component :
Surface structure Syntax (sentence)
I ate an apple
•Phonological component: sounding:
[ai eit en æpl]
•Semantic component : meaning :
I put an apple into my mouth and ate it
•  
 4 Components in SYNTAX
Transformational
Base component : component :
Deep structure Surface structure
Syntax (sentence)
S-V-O
I ate an apple

Phonological component: Semantic component :

sounding meaning
[ai eit en æpl] I ate an apple
 Syntagmatic - paradigmatic
relationship
• A syntagmatic relationship is a
sequence of signs or words that together
create meaning, a sentence
• A paradigmatic relationship is that the
signs or words can be replaced or
substituted by other signs or words.
• The new arrangement of new words can
change the meaning.
 Syntagmatic

S - V - O
Subject - Object - Object

Paradigmatic
I eat an apple
He reads a book
Ali drink a cup of tea
Anisah wrote a letter
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relation

S - V- O syntagmatic
• I ate an apple
paradigmatic
• He bought some milk

Ani has read a letter

The students are looking for the history books

 Cohesion and Coherence:
Cohesion: Grammatical and lexical
relationships between different elements of
a text.
E.g. Reference : Ali - he, Ani - she, him,
they, them, that one, this, those, there, etc.
Coherence: Semantic relationship.
Cohesive devices: Firstly, secondly, finally,
therefore, moreover, however, on the other
hand, consequently etc.
 Coherence : Semantic relationship.

The relationships which link the meanings

of utterances in the sentences in a text.
Generally a paragraph has coherence if it
is a series of sentences that develop a
main idea with a topic sentence and
supporting sentences which relate to it.
Text has semantic strings and flow of
ideas.
 Structure
• A term which often refers
to a sequence of linguistic
units that are in a certain
relationship to one
another.
 Structure
• A structure can be any of significant group of
words such as a phrase, a clause or a
sentence.
• For example: In syntax, one of the structure of
a noun phrase may be:
• article + adjective + noun =
• a good book , an ugly face, a red car, a red
chair, a long ball
 Sentence structure
• Sentence structure is the way a sentence
is constructed or arranged,
grammatically.
• A sentence is a set of words that are put
together to mean something.
• A sentence is the basic unit of language
which expresses a complete thought.
 Phrase:
A phrase is a group of words which
form a grammatical unit.
A phrase does not contain a finite verb
and does not have a subject-predicate
structure.
Phrases are classified according to
their central word or head word,
e.g in the morning, a good book,
wonderful experience
 Noun phrase
• Noun phrase:
• A group of words with a noun or pronoun
as the main part (head). For example:
• I liked his expensive red car.
• He hates working in the library
• Noun phrase can be replaced by a noun or
a pronoun:
• I liked his expensive red car
• can be replaced by I liked it
 Verbal phrase
• Verbal phrase is a part of a sentence
which contains the main verb and also
any object, complement or adverbial.
• For example:
• Ali gave his pen to his daughter
• We talked about what happened
yesterday
• He can run very quickly
.
Group

A group is different from a phrase.

A phrase is a contraction of a
clause,
A group is an expansion of a word.
The difference is on the way of
looking at that unit of language
 GROUP

Verbal Group:
He has been studying English for 5
months.
Adverbial Group:
He can finish the exam much more
quickly
than he would have expected.
 Clause.
A clause is a group of words which form a
grammatical unit and which contain a
subject and a finite verb
(a verb which is related to subject and
which shows tense).
A clause forms a sentence or part of a
sentence and often functions as a noun,
adjective or adverb.
 Clasification of clause
1. Independent clause:
I hurried
I will study hard
2. Dependent clause
Because I was late
Because tomorrow is examination
Types of Sentence: attitude of
the speaker
Declarative = a sentence which is in the form of
statement : I tell you, I’m leaving
now
Interrrogative = is a sentence which is in the form
of a question: Did you open the
window?
Imperative = = is a sentence which is in the form
of a command: Pick up the book!
Exlamatory = an utterance which shows the s
peaker’s or the writer’s feeling . How
 Types of Sentence: form of the
language
Simple Sentence = a sentence which contains only
one predicate: I like milk, I read a book.
Compound sentence = a sentence which contains
two or more independent clauses which are joined
by coordination. Eg. He is a small boy but he is very
strong
Complex sentence = a sentence which contains two
or more dependent clauses, in addition to its
independent clause or main clause. Eg. When it
rained, we went inside
WORD FORMS
A simple word
a word consists of a single morpheme,
e.g. study, eat
A complex word
a word contains two or more
morphemes, e.g. trains, illegal,
unhappy, unavoidable,
misunderstanding
 Parts of Speech
1. NOUN
2. Pronoun
3. Adjective
4. Verb
5. Adverb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Exlamation
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