NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Holt Modern Chemistry

Addisson & Wesley Chemistry
Glencoe Chemistry
Zumdahl Chemistry
Chemical & Engineering News (July 8, 2002)
Radiation & Innovation: The Legacy of Marie Curie ©2000
How Stuff Works
 THE NUCLEUS
• NUCLEONS
– Protons and neutrons contained in the atomic
nucleus
• NUCLIDE
– Atom identified by the number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus

Mass No. (A)

228
Atomic No. (Z) 88 Ra Radium-228

2
 Mass Defect &
Nuclear Stability
• MASS DEFECT
– The difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of
the masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons
– Caused by the conversion of mass to energy upon formation
of the nucleus (E = mc2)
– Mass defect of a nuclide represents its binding energy
• NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
– The energy released when a nucleus is formed from nucleons
• BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
– Binding energy of the nucleus divided by the number of
nucleons it contains

3
Mass Defect & Binding Energy Calculations

MASS DEFECT (Δm) – Unit : amu

Δm = [Z (mp+ + me-) + (A-Z)mn ] – matom

0

mp+ = 1.007276 amu

me- = 0.0005486 amu
mn0 = 1.008665 amu

4
 Binding Energy Calculations
• NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
1. Convert mass defect Δm (amu) to kg:
1.660540 x 10 27 kg
m (amu) 
1 amu
2. Substitute Δm (kg) in the equation E = mc2
Energy unit is Joules (J)
c = 3.00 x 108 m/s
3. Binding Energy per Nucleon
E/#nucleons
4. Binding Energy per Mole
E x 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol
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 Mass Defect & Binding Energy
Calculations
The mass of 2010 Ne atom is 19.99244 amu.
Calculate its mass defect.
Δm = 0.17246 amu
Calculate the binding energy of one
Lithium-6 atom. The measured atomic
mass of Lithium-6 is 6.015 amu.
E = 5.15 x 10-12 J
6
Binding Energy Per Nucleon

7
 Nucleons &
Nuclear Stability
• BAND OF STABILITY
– Stable nuclei cluster over a range of neutron-
proton ratios
– Low atomic # (1:1 ratio) – stable
– High atomic # (1.5:1 ratio) – stable
– EX:
12 14 206
6 C 6 C 82 Pb
8
 Nucleons &
Nuclear Stability
• BAND OF STABILITY
– Electrostatic repulsion
vs. Nuclear force
• Protons in a nucleus
repel all other protons
through electrostatic
repulsion
• Short range nuclear
force allows protons to
attract only protons
very close to them
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 Nucleons &
Nuclear Stability
• BAND OF STABILITY
– As nuclei become larger, more neutrons are
required to increase the nuclear force and stabilize
the nucleus
– Stability of nucleus is greatest when nucleons are
paired
– Nuclei with too many or too few neutrons
compared to the # of protons are radioactive
– No stable nuclei exist beyond atomic # 83
(Bismuth)
10
Band of
Stability

11
 Nucleons &
Nuclear Stability
• NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL
– Nucleons exist in different energy levels, or
shell, in the nucleus
• MAGIC NUMBERS
– Number of nucleons that represent
completed energy levels – 2, 8, 20, 28, 50,
82, & 126

Magic Numbers.url
12
 DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
• HENRI BECQUEREL (1896)
– Discovered that uranium ores emit invisible rays
• MARIE & PIERRE CURIE
– Discovered two new radioactive metallic elements
(Polonium & Radium)
– Showed that rays emitted by the uranium in the ore
caused the fogging of photographic plates
• 1903 PHYSICS NOBEL PRIZE
– Awarded to Becquerel, Marie & Pierre Curie for their
work with radioactivity
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Marie & Pierre Curie

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Lab Equipment for Radioactivity Research

15
 DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
• RADIOACTIVE DECAY (Radioactivity)
– Spontaneous disintegration of a nucleus into a
slightly lighter nucleus , accompanied by emission of
particles, and/or energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation
• NUCLEAR RADIATION
– Particles or electromagnetic radiation emitted from
the nucleus during radioactive decay
• RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDE (RADIOISOTOPE)
– An unstable nucleus that undergoes radioactive
decay
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NUCLEAR REACTION
1. Isotopes gain stability by
making changes within their
nuclei.
2. Elements may be converted
from one to another.
3. Particles within the nucleus
are involved.
 4. Tremendous amounts of
energy are released or
absorbed.
  5. Rate of reaction is not
influenced by external factors;
reaction cannot be turned off.
ORDINARY CHEMICAL
REACTION
1. Atoms gain stability by
attaining stable electron
configuration.
2. No new elements can be
produced.
3. Only the electrons
participate.
4. Relatively small amounts of
energy are released or
absorbed.
5. Rate of reaction depends on
factors such as concentration,
catalyst, and pressure
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 NUCLEAR REACTION
• Reaction that affects the nucleus of an atom
• TRANSMUTATION
– A change in the identity of a nucleus as a result
of a change in the number of protons

9 4 12 1
4 Be  2 He  6 C  0 n
Nuclear Decay.url 18
 Radioactive Nuclide Emissions

TYPE SYMBOL CHARGE

Alpha 4
2 He 2+
Beta 0
1 e 1-
0
Positron 1 e 1+
0
Gamma 0  0
Neutron 1
0n 0
Proton 1
1H 1+
Deuteron 2
1H 1+
19
 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
4 4
• ALPHA EMISSION 2 He 2
– Occurs in heavy nuclei
– Alpha particle (α) consist of two protons & two
neutrons emitted during radioactive decay
– Similar to Helium nucleus
– Atomic number decreases by two and mass number
decreases by four

238 4 234
92 U  2 He  90Th
20
 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
0 0
• BETA EMISSION -1  -1 e
– Occurs in nuclei with too many neutrons
– Beta particle (β) – consist of an electron
emitted from the nucleus
– The atomic number increases by one and
the mass number stays the same

234 234 0
90 Th  91 Pa  1 e
21
 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
0
• POSITRON EMISSION 1 e
– Occurs in nuclei with too many protons
– Positron is a particle that has the same mass
as electron but has a positive charge, and is
emitted from the nucleus during radioactive
decay
– The atomic number decreases by one and
the mass number stays the same
22 0 22
11 Na  1 e  10 Ne
22
 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
• ELECTRON CAPTURE (K-Capture)
– An inner orbital electron is captured by
the nucleus of its own atom
– The atomic number decreases by one
and the mass number stays the same

201 0 201 0
80 Hg  1 e  79 Au  0 
23
 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
0
• GAMMA EMISSION 0
– Occurs immediately following other types of
decay, when other types of decay leave the
nucleus in an excited state
– Gamma Rays – high energy electromagnetic
waves emitted from a nucleus as its changes
from an excited state to ground state energy

238 4 234 0
92 U  2 He  90 Th  20 
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Balancing Nuclear Equations

25
 Complete the following Equations
27
12 Mg decays by beta emission.

49
24 Cr decays by positron emission.

76
36 Kr decays by electron capture.

213
88 Ra decays by alpha emission.

26
 HALF-LIFE (t½)
• The time required for half of the
atoms of a radioactive nuclide to
decay

Half Life.url

27
K-40 Half-Life Comparison

28
Rate of Decay

29
Half-Life

30
 HALF-LIFE (t½)
T
# HL  N = No [(0.5) #HL]
t1/ 2
HL = number of Half-lives (#
T of times it decays by half)
#HL t1/2 T = Time elapsed for decay

t½ = half life
N  0.693 
ln   T N = Remaining amount
No  t1/ 2 
No = Initial amount
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 Decay Series
• Series of PARENT NUCLIDE
radioactive The heaviest
nuclides produced nuclide of each
by successive decay series
radioactive decay DAUGHTER
until a stable NUCLIDE
Nuclides produced
nuclide is reached
by the decay of the
parent nuclide
Decay Series.url
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 Artificial transmutation
• Bombardment of a stable nuclei with charged
and uncharged particles
• ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVE NUCLEI
– Radioactive nuclides not found naturally on earth
• TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS
– Elements with more than 92 protons in their
nucleus
– Produced from artificial transmutation

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NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION

34
 Artificial transmutation
• ACCELERATOR
– Linear or circular device that
is used to increase the
velocity of the charged
particles

Ernest Lawrence’s first

cyclotron, built in 1930
had an energy of 80
thousand volts and a
circumference of 32
inches
35
 Fermi International Accelerator
Laboratory
Today’s most powerful accelerator,
the Tevatron at the Department of
Energy’s Fermilab, has an energy of
2 trillion electron volts and a
circumference of four miles.

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“TEVATRON”

37
Fermi International Accelerator
Laboratory

38
NUCLEAR RADIATION Relative Penetrating
Power
• ALPHA PARTICLES
– Low penetrating ability due to their large
mass and charge
– Can be stopped by a sheet of paper or dead
cells on skin surface
– Can not penetrate the skin but can cause
damage if ingested or inhaled

39
 Relative Penetrating Power

• BETA PARTICLES
– 100 times more penetrating than alpha
particles
– Can be stopped by a sheet of aluminum
foil
• GAMMA RADIATION
– Most penetrating form of radiation
– Can be stopped (but not completely) by
several feet of concrete or several inches
of lead
40
 Penetrating power
of the Particles

Alpha Beta Gamma.url

41
 Radiation Exposure
• ROENTGEN
– Unit used to measure nuclear radiation
– 1 roentgen = amount of radiation producing 2 x 109 ion
pairs when it passes through 1 cm3 of air
– Rem (roentgen equivalent, man) - quantity of ionizing
radiation that does as much damage to human tissue as is
done by 1 roentgen of high voltage X-rays
– Environmental background radiation – average of 0.1 rem
– Sievert (SI unit)
• 1 Sv = 100 Rem
• IONIZING RADIATION – knocks electrons off some
atoms of the bombarded substance to produce ions
42
 Ionizing Effects of Radiation

• Possible damage to DNA

– Base damage
– Strand damage
• Possible consequences
– Mutations
– Alterations to biochemistry
– May be lethal or non-lethal
43
 Radiation Exposure
• ALARA • Depends on:
– Time exposed
– As
– Distance from
– Low radiation source
– As – Amount produced
– Reasonably – Shielding of
source
– Achievable

44
 EXPOSURE LIMITS

Whole body 5 Rem/yr

Skin 30 Rem/yr

Extremities 75 Rem/yr

Pregnancy 500 mRem/9 mo.

45
Detecting Overexposure to Radiation

46
 Radiation Detection

• FILM BADGE
– Uses exposure
of film to
measure the
approximate
radiation
exposure of
people working
with radiation

47
 Radiation Detection
• GEIGER
COUNTER
– Instrument that
detect
radiation by
counting
electronic
pulses carried
by gas ionized
by radiation
48
Geiger Counter

49
 Radiation Detection
• SCINTILLATION COUNTER
– Instrument that convert scintillating light to an
electric signal for detecting radiation

50
Home Radon Detector

51
 APPLICATIONS OF
NUCLEAR RADIATION
• RADIOACTIVE DATING
– Process by which the approximate age of an
object is determined based on the amount of
certain radioactive nuclides present
– Based on half-life of radioactive substances
– Age is estimated by measuring either the
Radiometric Dating.url

accumulation of a daughter nuclide or

disappearance of parent nuclide

52
Isotopes & Dating Techniques

53
 THE SHROUD OF
TURIN – HOW OLD?

In 1988, scientists
used Radiocarbon
dating on the
Shroud of Turin, a
linen cloth people
believe was the
burial cloth of Jesus
Christ, to determine
its age.The diagram
on the right shows
how radiocarbon
dating works.
54
 APPLICATIONS OF
NUCLEAR RADIATION
• MEDICAL USES
– RADIOACTIVE TRACERS – radioactive atoms that
are incorporated into substances so that
movement of the substances can be followed by
radiation detectors
• Radioisotopes should have short half-life, and be target
specific
– Radioisotopes are inserted directly into cancerous
tissues (Cobalt-60)
– CHEMOTHERAPY
Tracer.url

55
 PET Scan
To take a PET (Positron Emission
Tomography) scan, doctors inject a
patient with radioisotopes. When
the radioisotopes reach the part of
the body to be scanned, special
cameras detect the rays emitted by
them. The resulting images can be
seen on a computer screen.

56
 How PET Works
Radioactive tracer suffers a radioactive decay, emitting a
positron
When a positron collides with an electron, a matter-anti-
matter annihilation occurs, liberating a burst of energy, in
the form of two beams of gamma rays, in opposite
directions.
This will then be shown as an image by the PET scanner.
That's why it's called Positron Emission Tomography.

57
 Pet Scanner
Each crystal detector emits a
brief pulse of light every time
it is struck with a gamma ray
coming from the radioisotope
within the patient's body.
The pulse of light is amplified
by a photomultiplier, and the
information is sent to the
computer which controls the
apparatus.
The whole process is called
scintigraphy (from
scintillation, which is the pulse
of light). 58
 APPLICATIONS OF
NUCLEAR RADIATION
AGRICULTURAL USES
Radioactive tracers to determine the
effectiveness of fertilizers
Irradiation of some foods to kill bacteria
and prolong shelf life
Irradiation of insects to sterilize them

59
Food Irradiation

60
Food Irradiation

“RADURA” logo
61
Food Irradiation

62
 APPLICATIONS OF
NUCLEAR RADIATION
• INDUSTRIAL USES
– Generators and Power instruments
– Smoke detectors
– Neutron Activation Analysis uses Cf-252 as
source of neutrons to probe luggage in
airports
– Analysis of nitrogen-containing explosives

63
Smoke Detector

64
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• NUCLEAR FISSION
– Splitting of a very heavy nucleus into
more stable nuclei of intermediate mass
– Mass of products of fission is less than
the mass of the reactants; converted to
energy

65
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• CHAIN REACTION CRITICAL MASS
– Nuclear reaction in which
Maximum
the material that starts
the reaction is also one amount of
of the products nuclide that
– If the nuclear reaction is provides the
not controlled , it can number of
cause nuclear explosion ~ neutrons needed
NUCLEAR BOMB!!! to sustain a chain
reaction

66
Nuclear Chain Reaction

67
 When An Atomic Bomb Explodes…
A fireball creates
shock and heat
waves that destroy
structures in the
immediate vicinity
of the blast.

• The rising fireball

sucks up debris to
form a mushroom
cloud.

68
 When An Atomic Bomb Explodes…
Damage can occur over large distances. For example, the
radius for severe damage could be approximately 18 km (11
mi) for a 10-megaton blast.
Radioactive fallout may be dispersed worldwide through
global atmospheric processes.

69
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
• Device engineered to run a controlled fission
reaction to produce energy or radioactive
nuclides
• Neutron Moderation
– Slows down the neutrons so that they can be
captured by the reactor fuel to continue their
reaction
• Neutron Absorption
– Decreases the number of slow neutrons to prevent
the chain reaction from going too fast

70
 NUCLEAR REACTORS
• NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
– Use heat from nuclear reactors to
produce electrical energy
• BREEDER REACTOR
– Designed not only to generate
electrical power but also to maximize
neutron capture.
– Can manufacture more fuel than they
use
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 PARTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
• SHIELDING – Radiation-absorbing material that
is used to decrease exposure to radiation
• FUEL – Fissionable materials that supplies
neutrons (U-235)
• CONTROL RODS – Neutron-absorbing rods that
help control the reaction by limiting the
number of free neutrons (Cd or Boron steel)
• MODERATOR – Used to slow down the fast
neutrons produced by fission ( Graphite)
• COOLANT – Absorbs heat produced by fission
72
NUCLEAR REACTOR

nuclear 73
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Atomic Core

74
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
Three-Mile Island

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/sfeature/tmiwhat.html
75
 Problems with
Nuclear power Plants

• Environmental Requirements
• Safety of Operation
• Plant construction costs
• Storage and disposal of spent fuel
and radioactive waste
76
Nuclear Reactors in the United States

77
What Do You Do With An Old Nuclear Power
Plant?
One disadvantage of nuclear power plants is that they
last only about 50 years. By then they become too
contaminated with fission products to be efficient. This
is one plan for decommissioning a nuclear power plant.

78
What Do You Do With An Old Nuclear Power
Plant?

79
 NUCLEAR FUSION
• Reaction in which light-mass nuclei
combine to form a heavier, more stable
nucleus
• Releases more energy per gram of fuel
than nuclear fission

80
 NUCLEAR FUSION
• Occur naturally in the sun and stars
• Occurs at a very high temperature: 108 K
• No known material can withstand the initial
temperature of the reaction
• Current investigations: Cold fusion and
fusion reaction with a magnetic field

81
Nuclear Fusion in the Sun

82
 Nuclear Fusion:
Stellar Formation of C-12

83
 NUCLEAR WASTE
• Radioactive products of fission and fusion
– Waste from Medical research – short half-life
– Waste from Nuclear reactors – takes
thousands of years to decay
• CONTAINMENT OF NUCLEAR WASTE
– On-site storage
– Off-site disposal

84
 NUCLEAR WASTE
• STORAGE OF NUCLEAR WASTE
– Spent fuel rods can be contained above the ground
by placing them in water pools or dry cask;
temporary storage
– Waste should be moved to permanent
underground storage facilities
• DISPOSAL OF NUCLEAR WASTE
– 77 disposal sites around US
– Disposal of nuclear waste at Yucca Mountain by
truck and train beginning in 2010
85
YUCCA MOUNTAIN
BREAKING
THROUGH A 25-foot-
diameter tunnel bore
breaks through rock
at Yucca Mountain.
This exploratory
tunnel, or "drift," will
be an access way to
transport radioactive
waste by locomotive
if the facility is
licensed and built.

86
35 MILES OF TUNNELS The repository rests 1,000 feet below the surface
and midway between the mountain's peak and the water table. Some 70,000
metric tons of waste will be placed in 35 miles of tunnels and actively
monitored for as long as 300 years. Some five miles of tunnels, shown in
red, have been bored for experimental purposes so far.

87
 LINED UP Three types of waste packages are planned for
storage, based on the type of waste they hold. The packages
weigh up to 72 tons, and they must be remotely moved and
monitored because of radioactivity and high temperature.

88