Chapter 4

ANALYZING WORK AND

DESIGNING JOBS

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 What Do I Need to Know? 1

L O 4-1 Summarize the elements of work flow analysis.

L O 4-2 Describe how work flow is related to an organization’s
structure.
L O 4-3 Define the elements of a job analysis, and discuss their
significance for human resource management.
L O 4-4 Tell how to obtain information for a job analysis.
L O 4-5 Summarize recent trends in job analysis.

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 What Do I Need to Know? 2

L O 4-6 Describe methods for designing a job so that it can be

done efficiently.
L O 4-7 Identify approaches to designing a job to make it
motivating.
L O 4-8 Explain how organizations apply ergonomics to design
safe jobs.
L O 4-9 Discuss how organizations can plan for the mental
demands of a job.

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 What is most motivating to you in a job?
POLLING QUESTION

A. A raise
B. A promotion
C. Verbal recognition
D. Job security

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 Work Flow in Organizations 1

Work Flow Design

• Process of analyzing tasks necessary for the production of
a product or service
• Tasks assigned to specific jobs and positions

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 Work Flow in Organizations 2

Work Flow Analysis

• Outputs: the products of any work unit
• Work processes: activities work unit’s members engage in
to produce a given output
• Inputs: raw inputs (materials), equipment, and human
resources needed to carry out the work process

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 Figure 4.1 Developing a Work Flow Analysis

Jump to long description in appendix.

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 Work Flow in Organizations 3

Work Flow Design and an Organization’s Structure

• Organization’s structure brings together people who must
collaborate to efficiently produce desired outputs
• Different organizational structures include:
• Centralized
• Decentralized
• Functional Groups
• Divisional Groups

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 Job Analysis 1

Job Analysis is the process

of getting detailed
information about jobs

©Stockbyte/Getty Images

Careful job analysis makes it possible to define what a person in a certain position
does and what qualifications are needed for the job. Firefighters use specific
equipment to extinguish fires, require physical strength to do their jobs, and must
possess the ability to make decisions under pressure.
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 Job Analysis 2

Job Descriptions
• A job description is a list of tasks, duties, and
responsibilities (TDRs) that a particular job entails
• Key components
• Job title
• Brief description of the TDRs
• List of essential duties with detailed specifications of tasks involved
in carry out each duty

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 Figure 4.2 Sample Job Description

Jump to long description in appendix.

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Source: Union Pacific, “Union Pacific Careers: Train Crew,”
 Job Analysis 3

Job Specifications
• A job specification includes the following components:
• Knowledge: factual or procedural information necessary for
successfully performing task
• Skill: individual’s level of proficiency at performing particular task
• Ability: general enduring capability an individual possesses
• Other Characteristics: job-related licensing, certifications, or
personality traits

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 Figure 4.3 Sample Job Specifications

Jump to long description in appendix.

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Source: Union Pacific, “Union Pacific Careers: Train Crew,”
 Job Analysis 4

Sources of Job Information

• Incumbents: people who currently hold position
• Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT): published by U.S.
Department of Labor
• Occupational Information Network (O*NET): an online job
description database developed by the Labor Department

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 Job Analysis 5

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

What is it? Key Sections

A standardized job analysis 1. Information input
questionnaire containing 194
2. Mental processes
questions about work behaviors,
work conditions, and job 3. Work output
characteristics that apply to a wide
4. Relationships with other persons
variety of jobs
5. Other characteristics

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 Job Analysis 6

Fleishman Job Analysis System

What is it? Categories of Abilities

Job analysis technique that asks • Written comprehension
subject-matter experts to evaluate a
• Deductive reasoning
job in terms of the abilities required
to perform the job • Manual dexterity
• Stamina
• Originality

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 Job Analysis 7

Analyzing Teamwork
• Skill differentiation
• Degree of specialized knowledge or functional capacities in team

• Authority differentiation
• Allocation of decision-making authority among team

• Temporal (time) stability

• Length of time team members must work together

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 Job Analysis 8

Importance of Job Analysis

• Building block of all HRM functions
• Work redesign
• Human resource planning
• Selection
• Training
• Performance appraisal
• Career planning
• Job evaluation

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 Job Analysis 9

Competency Models
• Enable organizations to identify capabilities they need to
acquire and develop for success
• Competency: an area of personal capability that enables
employees to perform their work successfully

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 Table 4.1 Example of Competencies and
Competency Model

Jump to long description in appendix.

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Source: Based on R. J. Mirabile, “Everything You Wanted to Know
 Job Analysis 10

Trends in Job Analysis

• Pace of change in jobs accelerating
• Robotics, AI, applications of information technology becoming
more widely available
• Job analyses must be flexible to respond to changes
• Must balance need for flexibility with need for legal
documentation; put greater emphasis on job design

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 Adding more tasks to an existing job is called
POLLING QUESTION
job _____, while adding more decision-making
authority to jobs is called job _____.
A. extension; rotation
B. rotation; enrichment
C. enlargement; enrichment
D. enlargement; rotation

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 Job Design 1

Job Design
• Defining how work is performed and required tasks
• Job redesign involves changing an existing design
• Effective design requires thorough understanding of job
through job analysis and work flow analysis

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 Figure 4.4 Approaches to Job Design

Jump to long description in appendix.

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 Job Design 2

Designing Efficient Jobs

• Industrial engineering: finding simplest way to structure
work in order to maximize efficiency
• Reduces complexity of work
• Allows almost anyone to be trained quickly to easily perform job
• Used for highly specialized and repetitive jobs

• Most organizations combine industrial engineering with

other approaches to job design

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 Job Design 3

Designing Jobs That Motivate

Why? Job Characteristics Model

• Important to to ensure workers • Skill variety
have positive attitude
• Task identity
• Workers with positive attitudes
• Task significance
are motivated
• Autonomy
• Job Characteristics Model
includes characteristics that boost • Feedback
motivation

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 Figure 4.5 Characteristics of a Motivating Job

Jump to long description in appendix.

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 Job Design 4
Designing Jobs That Motivate continued

Job Enlargement
Broadening tasks performed in a job

Job Extension Job Rotation

Enlarging jobs by combining several Enlarging jobs by moving employees
relatively simple jobs to form a job among several different jobs
with a wider range of tasks

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 Job Design 5
Designing Jobs That Motivate continued

Job Enrichment Self-Managing Work Teams

• Empowering workers by adding
more decision-making authority
to jobs
• Based on Herzberg’s theory of
motivation
• Individuals motivated more by
intrinsic aspects of work
• Have authority for an entire work
process or segment
• Team members motivated by
autonomy, skill variety, and task
identity

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 Job Design 6
Designing Jobs That Motivate continued

Flexible Work Schedules

Flextime allows full-time employees Job sharing allows two part-time

to choose starting and ending times employees to carry out tasks
within a set of guidelines associated with single full-time job

Compressed workweeks allow Telework allows employees to do

employees to work 40 hours within work away from a centrally located
less than 5 days office

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 Figure 4.6 Alternatives to the 8-to-5 Job

Jump to long description in appendix.

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 Job Design 7

Designing Ergonomic Jobs

• Ergonomics: study of interface between individuals’
physiology and characteristics of work environment
• Goal to minimize physical strain of worker by structuring
physical work environment around individuals’ physiology
• Leads to increased efficiency in workplace
• Increase in use of mobile devices causing repetitive-stress
injuries (RSIs)

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 Job Design 8

Designing Jobs that Meet Mental Capabilities and

Limitations
• The mind has capabilities and limitations
• Technology can cause information overload
• Goal to simplify mental demands of jobs to limit mistakes
• Limit amount of information and memorization required
• Provide adequate lighting
• Give simple instructions and easy-to-read gauges and displays

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Appendix of Image Long
Descriptions
 Appendix to Figure 4.1 Developing a Work Flow Analysis

The analysis identifies three kinds of inputs.

Raw inputs: what materials, data, and information are needed?
Equipment: what special equipment, facilities, and systems are needed?
Human resources: what knowledge, skills, and abilities are needed by those
performing the tasks?
These three inputs lead to the activity: what tasks are required in the
production of the output?
The activity leads to the output: what product, information, or service is
provided? How is the output measured?

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 Appendix to Figure 4.2 Sample Job Description

The Job graphic reads:

Overview: When you work on a Union Pacific train crew, you’re working at the very heart of our
railroad. Train crew employees are responsible for serving our customers by providing the safe,
on-time, and on-plan movement of freight trains.
Job Description: In this entry-level position, you’ll start as a Switchperson or Brakeperson, working
as on-the-ground traffic control. You don’t need any previous railroad experience; we provide all
training. These jobs directly lead to becoming a Conductor and a Locomotive Engineer, where you
will have a rare opportunity to work on board a moving locomotive. The Conductor is responsible
for the train, the freight and the crew. The Locomotive Engineer actually operates the locomotive.
Duties: You will work outdoors in all weather conditions and frequently at elevations more than
12 feet above the ground. You must wear personal protective equipment, such as safety glasses
and safety boots. You will frequently carry loads and regularly step on and o equipment and work
from ladders. You will use and interpret hand signals and sounds, use computers, count train cars,
and follow posted regulations.
Major Tasks and Responsibilities: You won’t work a standard 40-hour workweek. Train crews are
always on call, even on weekends and holidays. You’ll travel with our trains, sometimes spending
a day or more away from your home terminal.

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 Appendix to Figure 4.3 Sample Job Specifications

The graphic reads:

Requirements: You must be at least 18 years old. You must speak and read English
because you’ll be asked to follow posted bulletins, regulations, rule books, timetables,
switch lists, etc. You must pass a reading comprehension test (see sample) to be
considered for an interview.
Job Requirements: You must be able to use a computer keyboard, and you must be
able to count and compare numbers. (You might, for example, be asked to count the
cars on a train during switching.) You must be able to solve problems quickly and react
to changing conditions on the job. You must have strong vision and hearing, including
the ability to: see and read hand signals from near and far; distinguish between colors;
visually judge the speed and distance of moving objects; see at night; and recognize
changes in sounds. You must also be physically strong: able to push, pull, lift, and carry
up to 25 pounds frequently; up to 50 pounds occasionally; and up to 83 pounds
infrequently. You’ll need good balance to regularly step on and o equipment and work
from ladders to perform various tasks. And you must be able to walk, sit, stand, and
stoop comfortably.

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 Appendix to Table 4.1 Example of Competencies and
Competency Model
Project Manager Competencies
Organizational and Planning Skills: Ability to establish priorities on projects and
schedule activities to achieve results.
Communications: Ability to build credibility and trust through open and direct
communications with internal and external customers.
Financial and Quantitative Skills: Ability to analyze financial information accurately and
set financial goals that have a positive impact on company’s bottom line and fiscal
objectives.
Each competency is accompanied by the following proficiency ratings:
1 Below Expectations: Unable to perform basic tasks.
2 Meets Expectations: Understands basic principles and performs routine tasks with
reliable results; works with minimal supervision or assistance.
3 Exceeds Expectations: Performs complex and multiple tasks; can coach, teach, or
lead others.
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 Appendix to Figure 4.4 Approaches to Job Design

The four approaches to job design are:

1. Design for Efficiency or Industrial Engineering
2. Design for Motivation: Job enlargement, job
enrichment, teamwork, flexibility
3. Design for Safety and Health or Ergonomics
4. Design for Mental Capacity: Filtering information,
clear displays and instructions, memory aids

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 Appendix to Figure 4.5 Characteristics of a Motivating Job

Skill Variety: more motivation when many skills are needed and less
motivation when few skills are needed.
Task Identity: more motivation when whole piece of work is completed and
less motivation when work is a small part of the whole.
Task Significance: more motivation when work has major impact on others
and less motivation when work has minor impact on others.
Autonomy: more motivation comes with freedom to make decisions and less
motivation when decisions are made by others.
Feedback: more motivation when effectiveness of work is readily apparent
and less motivation when effectiveness of work is difficult to see.

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 Appendix to Figure 4.6 Alternatives to the 8-to-5 Job

Flextime: I B M permits a meal break of up to two hours so

employees can do personal tasks. Employees can choose when
they start and end work, but each employee must work during
core time (9 in the morning to 3 in the afternoon). For example,
employees can start work as early as 6 in the morning and leave
when core time ends at 3 in the afternoon.
Job Sharing: two lawyers, both fathers, share the job of assistant
general counsel at Timberland. One lawyer starts at 7 in the
morning, the other lawyer starts at 4 in the afternoon.
Compressed Workweek: all employees at Red Dot Corporation
have the option of working 10 hours per day, Monday through
Thursday, in order to take Fridays off.

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