Analog

Communication
RECK
Electromagnetic spectrum and typical
application
 In wireless communication, information is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic
waves (EM waves).
 The electromagnetic wave is made up of electric and magnetic fields and it can travel a
long distance through space.
 The oscillations in EM wave are sinusoidal and are measured as cycles per second or
hertz (Hz).
 The frequency of EM signal can be very low (around 1 Hz) or can be extremely high.
This range of frequencies of EM waves is known as electromagnetic spectrum.
Frequency range EM spectrum name Typical applications

30-300Hz Extremely Low Frequency Power line communication


300Hz-3KHz Extremely Low Frequency Audio communication

3KHz-30KHz Voice Frequency (VF) Submarine communication

30KHz-300KHz Very Low Frequency (VLF) Aeronautical and marine communication

300KHz-3MHz Low Frequency (LF) AM broadcasting

3MHz-30MHz Medium Frequency (MF) Land line telephone

30MHz-300MHz High Frequency (HF) FM, TV broadcasting

300MHz-3GHz Very High Frequency (VHF) TV broadcasting, cellular telephony

3GHz-30GHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Microwave links, radar

30GHz-300GHz Super High Frequency (SHF) Satellite communication and Radar

300GHz-3THz Extremely High Frequency For all new experiments

43THz-430THz (EHF) LED, laser, TV remote

430THz-750THz Experimental optical communication

750THz-3000THz Infra-red Visible light medical application

>3000THz Ultra violet medical application

X-rays, γ-rays, cosmic rays
 Terminologies in communication system
 1. Time (t) - The fundamental quantity with respect to which all communication takes place is
known as time (t). It is usually expressed in seconds (sec).
 2. Frequency (f) - The number of cycles (or oscillations) of any signal completed in one second is
known as frequency (f). It is measured in hertz (Hz).
 It may also be defined as the fundamental quantity based on which, all signals are commonly
distinguished. For e.g. the carrier has a frequency value while the information has a range of
frequencies.
 3. Wavelength (λ) - The distance covered by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one
complete cycle is known as wavelength. It is inversely proportional to the frequency of a signal.
The wavelength (λ) is related to frequency (f) by the relationship,
 𝜆= 𝐶/𝑓 ….. (1)
 where, c is the speed of EM (electromagnetic) wave in free space and its value is 3×10 8 m/s.
4. Frequency spectrum –
 Usually a signal is represented as a function of time. If the same signal is represented
as a function of frequency, then it is known as spectrum or frequency spectrum.
 Frequency spectrum can be generated by doing Fourier analysis of the signal and
the resulting values are represented as amplitude and phase which are plotted against
frequency.
 Conversely, if the spectrum is given, we can obtain the time domain signal (if both
amplitude spectrum and phase spectrum are specified).

5. Bandwidth (B.W.) –
 Bandwidth is the frequency range occupied by a signal.
 In other words, it may be defined as the portion of EM spectrum allotted to a
particular signal. It may also be termed as signal bandwidth.
 In analog, bandwidth is expressed in cycles/per second or Hertz (Hz). In digital,
bandwidth is expressed in bits per second (bps).
 There is another bandwidth associated with channel, usually known as channel bandwidth.
It may be defined as the range of frequencies over which the modulated signal can be
transmitted as shown in Fig.
 B.W. = fH - fL ……..(2)
 where, fH= upper frequency limit or higher cut-off frequency
 fL= lower frequency limit or lower cut-off frequency

 6. Baseband signal - The message signal in its original frequency range is known as
baseband signal.
 It is a low frequency signal which is originated by an information source. For e.g. voice
signal (frequency range 300 Hz to 3000 Hz).
 Transmission of baseband signal (or message signal) in its frequency range is called
baseband transmission.
 7. Broadband signal - The message signal in its modulated frequency range is known
as broadband signal. It is also known as band pass signal or modulated signal.
Transmission of broadband signal (or modulated signal) in its modulated frequency
range is known as broadband transmission.

 8. Modulation - It may be defined as the process of modulating (or changing) some

parameter like amplitude, frequency and phase of a high frequency carrier signal in
accordance with the baseband (or message) signal . A carrier signal does not contain any
information. It only carries the message signal.

 9. Demodulation (or detection) - It is the reverse process of modulation. Demodulation

is the process of extracting the baseband signal from the modulated signal. It can be
obtained by retranslating the baseband signal from higher frequency spectrum to lower
(or original) frequency spectrum.
Signal Representation and Analysis
 Signal:
 A signal is a single-valued function of one or more independent
variables that conveys some information. In electrical sense, the
signal can be voltage or current. It can be a function of time,
temperature, position etc. Usually signal is broadly classified as
 1. Continuous time signal- A signal that is defined for every instant of
time is known as continuous time signal. In other words, the amplitude
of signal varies continuously. It is also known as analog signal.
 2. Discrete time signal- A signal that is defined at discrete instant of
time is known as discrete time signal. The amplitude between two time
instants is not defined. It is usually derived from a continuous signal by
the process of sampling.
Analog and discrete time signal.
 Digital signal- When the amplitude of the discrete signal takes only finite values, it is called
digital signal. The amplitude of a digital signal has only two possible values of OFF and ON or 0
and 1. This representation is known as binary form. Fig. 9.5(c) shows the digital signal.
 The signal can be further classified as:
 Periodic signal and Non-periodic signal- A signal which repeats itself after a fixed interval of
time is known as periodic signal. This fixed time interval is known as time period of the
signal. Example: sine wave, square wave etc.
 A signal which does not repeat itself after a fixed interval of time or does not repeat at all is
known as non-periodic signal.
 Deterministic signal and Random signal- A signal which can be completely specified in time
and represented by a mathematical equation at any time is known as deterministic signal. The
nature and amplitude of such a signal can be predicted at any time.
 A signal whose occurrence is always random is known as random or non-deterministic signal.
The pattern of such a signal is quite irregular. Example: noise signal.
 Even signal and Odd signal- A signal is said to be even signal if inversion of time axis does
not change the amplitude of the signal. Such signal is symmetrical about zero time axis.
Example: cosine wave.
 A signal is said to be odd if inversion of time axis inverts the amplitude of the signal. It is also
known as unsymmetrical signal. Example: sine wave.
 Representation and analysis of signals
 An electrical signal can be represented in two forms:

 1. Time domain representation- The representation of signal amplitude with

respect to time is known as time domain representation.
 2. Frequency domain representation- The signal is represented by its frequency
spectrum. A frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency.
 Fourier series and Fourier transform are used to have frequency spectrum of signal
from its time domain signal. If the signal is a periodic function of time, Fourier
series is used to transform it. Fourier transform is used when the signal is non-
periodic.
Various Analog Modulation Techniques
 Modulation can be done by varying any one of the three variables such as amplitude, frequency
and phase of a high frequency carrier signal. Therefore, there are three types of analog modulation,
namely Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM).
 1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Amplitude modulation is the process of varying the amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave in
proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain
constant.
 2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a high frequency carrier wave in
proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
 3. Phase Modulation (PM)
 Phase modulation is the process of varying the phase of a high frequency carrier wave in
proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
 Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation is used in radio broadcasting. In television,
amplitude modulation is used for transmission of video signals and frequency modulation is used
for transmission of audio signals.
Amplitude Modulation
 A modulation process in which the amplitude of a carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of a modulating signal is known as Amplitude
modulation.
 It is the oldest and simplest form of modulation. Fig. shows a single frequency
modulating signal, high frequency carrier signal and the modulated signal.
 The amplitude of the modulated signal varies according to the modulating signal
whereas its frequency and phase remain constant.
 There are various schemes or versions of amplitude modulation.
 DSB-FC (Double Side Band- Full Carrier) is the most common version of
amplitude modulation.
 Whenever the term AM (Amplitude modulation) is used, it refers to DSB-FC unless
specified. Other versions of Amplitude modulation are:
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Expression for AM (DSBFC) signal
 DSB-SC (Double Side Band- Suppressed Carrier)
 SSB (Single Side Band)
 VSB (Vestigial Side Band)
 Let the instantaneous value of modulating voltage be given by the expression
 𝜈𝑚 = Vm cos ωm t
 where, ωm angular frequency
 Vm = maximum amplitude
 Let the instantaneous value of carrier voltage or high frequency voltage be given by the
expression
 𝜈𝐶 = VC cos ωC t
 where, ωc angular frequency
 Vc = maximum amplitude
DSBFC
 For convenience in calculation, phase angle (𝜃) has been ignored in both the
expressions since it is unchanged by the amplitude modulation process.
 In amplitude modulation, amplitude of carrier no longer remains constant but varies
with time as shown in Fig. The amplitude of modulated signal is given by
 VAM = VC + Vm cos ωmt
 where, Vm cos ωmt is the change in carrier amplitude
 The instantaneous value of amplitude modulated signal is given by
 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VAM cos ωct
 = [VC + Vm cos ωmt ] cos ωct
 𝑜𝑟 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VC [ 1 + 𝑉𝑚/𝑉𝐶cosω𝑚𝑡]cos𝜔𝐶𝑡
 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VC [ 1 + m cos ωmt] cos ωct
 Where, m is the modulation index or modulating factor or depth of modulation.
 Eq. represents the expression for the amplitude modulated (AM) signal.
Modulation Index
 The variation in amplitude of the modulated signal is represented by the ratio V m / VC
and is defined as modulation index.
 Modulation index (m) gives the depth of modulation.
 It can be expressed as the ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating (or baseband)
signal to the maximum carrier amplitude.
 m = Vm / Vc
 The modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1 and is often expressed in
percentage. So, it is also called percentage modulation.
 Modulation index m > 1 represents over modulation and leads to distortion. This results
in loss of information in the AM wave and hence over modulation must be avoided.
 m < 1 under modulation
 M=1 critical modulatio
Time Domain Representation
 Fig. represents the amplitude modulated wave in time domain. In AM
signal, the top envelope is represented by VAM = Vc+ Vm cos ωm t and
the bottom envelope is represented by –VAM = -( Vc+ Vm cos ωm t ).
 The AM wave extends between the top and bottom envelope.
 Vmax = Vc + Vm
 Vmin = Vc – Vm
 Adding and subtracting the above two equations result in
 Vmax + Vmin = 2Vc
 Vmax – Vmin = 2Vm
 The modulation index is given by


m = 𝑉𝑚 / 𝑉𝑐 = (𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛)/(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛) Fig. 9.11 Time domain representation of Amplitude Modulated Signal

 m = (𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛) / (𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Previous Lecture

 Voice Signal – 300Hz -3.5 kHz

 Audio Signal – 20 Hz – 20 kHz
 Video Signal – 0- 4.5 MHz
 Coaxial cable -0 – 600 MHz, BW=600 MHz
 Parallel wire – 0-200 MHz, BW = 200 MHz
 Optical fiber – in GHz
 Channel BW >= signal BW
Frequency domain representation
 A modulating signal is translated to a new frequency range by multiplying it with
carrier signal. To illustrate the frequency domain representation, let us initially consider
a AM signal represented in Eq.
 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VC [ 1 + m cos ωmt] cos ωct
 = VC cosωct + m VC cos ωmt cos ωct
 Using trigonometric identity, 2cosA cosB = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B)
 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VC cos ωc t + (m VC )/2 [ cos (ωc + ωm)t + cos (ωc - ωm)t ]
 𝜈𝐴𝑀 = VC cos ωct + (m VC )/2 [cos (ωc + ωm)t] +(m VC )/2 [cos (ωc - ωm)t ]
 Carrier USB LSB
 Thus an AM signal consists of carrier frequency and first pair of sidebands, USB and
LSB (i.e. Upper Side Band and Lower Side Band) frequencies.
 The information contained in message signal is translated into two regions i.e. LSB and
USB.
 The amplitude of two side bands is same given as mVC/2 . The frequency of lower
side band (LSB) is fc-fm and frequency of upper side band (USB) is fc+fm .
 Thus, the bandwidth required for AM wave is given by
 B.W. = fusb - flsb
 = (fc+fm ) – (fc- fm)
 B.W. = 2fm
 Thus the bandwidth required for AM wave is given by twice the frequency of
modulating signal.
 If several sinusoidal waves are modulated simultaneously, then the bandwidth required
is double of the highest modulating frequency.
 Power relations in AM wave
 AM wave has three components: carrier, upper side band
and lower side band.
 The carrier has the highest amplitude, while USB and
LSB have amplitude less than the carrier.
 Thus, modulated wave requires extra energy in two
sidebands. Therefore, the AM wave contains more power
than un-modulated carrier wave.
 Since, the amplitude of sidebands depends on
modulation index (m). Therefore, the total power in AM
wave will also depend on modulation index (m).

Fig. 9.12 Frequency spectrum of AM wave

Total Power
 The total power required by AM wave is the sum of the carrier power (PC) and
powers in the two sidebands (PLSB and PUSB) and is given by
 PT = PC + PLSB + PUSB
 Carrier power (PC):

 where, Vc is the maximum value of carrier wave and R is the resistance of antenna in
which power is dissipated.
 Sideband power (PSB):

 Total power:
Total power (PT):
 This is the relation between total power of AM wave and unmodulated
carrier power Pc.
 The maximum power in AM wave is calculated as
 PT = Pc [ 1+ 1/2 ] ( where, m =1 )
 PT = 3/2 Pc
 PT = 1.5 Pc this means Pc = 0.66 PT
 Example : A broadcast AM transmitter radiates 50 KW of carrier power.
 What will be the radiated power at 85 percent modulation?
 Solution: Since, m=0.85, Pc =50 KW
Current Relation in AM Wave
 Let, Ic is unmodulated carrier current and I T is total or modulated current of an AM transmitter.
 Both IT and IC are rms values of current. Let R is the resistance through which these currents
flow. Using power relation given by

 Eq. gives the relation between total AM current and unmodulated carrier current.
 Example : When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50% modulated, its antenna current is
12A .What will be the current when the modulation depth is increased to 0.9?
Modulation by several sinusoidal waves
 In most of the applications, carrier is simultaneously modulated by several sinusoidal
modulating signals.
 In such case, total power can be calculated by first calculating the total modulation index.
 To determine the total modulation index, Eq. may be rewritten as

 If several sinusoidal waves simultaneously modulate the carrier, the carrier power will be
unaffected, but the total sideband power will now be the sum of individual sideband powers.
 Let m1(t), m2(t), m3(t)……. are the corresponding modulation indexes of several sinusoidal
waves. Hence we can write…
Cont…

 This total modulation index must also not exceed unity otherwise distortion will result.
 Example: A certain AM transmitter radiate 9 KW with the carrier unmodulated and 10.125 KW
when the carrier is modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine wave is
simultaneously transmitted with the modulation index 0.4, determine the total radiated power.
Transmission Efficiency

 Transmission efficiency = sideband power / total power

 [ Psb / Pt]
 Psb = Pc m2 / 2
 Pt = [Pc (1 + m2 / 2)]

 [Pc m2 / 2 ] / [Pc (1 + m2 / 2)]

 TF = m2 / (2 + m2)
Transmission Efficiency
 Example: An audio frequency signal 10sin2 𝜋×500𝑡 is used to amplitude modulate a carrier of
50sin2𝜋×105 𝑡. Calculate:
 i. Modulation index. iv. Bandwidth required.
 ii. Sideband frequencies. v. Total power delivered to the load of 600Ω.
vi. Transmission efficiency.
 iii. Amplitude of each sideband frequencies.
 Solution: Modulation index:
 Given 𝑉𝑚=10sin2𝜋×500𝑡 , 𝑉𝑐=50sin2𝜋×105 𝑡
 ∴𝑉𝑚=10 and 𝑉𝑐=50, 𝑓𝑚=500 𝐻𝑧, 𝑓𝑐=105 𝐻𝑧=100𝐾𝐻𝑧
 We know that Modulation index 𝑚=𝑉𝑚 / 𝑉𝑐=10 / 50=0.2
 Percentage modulation =0.2×100=20%
 ii. Sideband frequencies:
Generation of AM signal
 The generation of the AM signal takes place at the transmitter end.
 Generation of AM signal can be done using an analog multiplier and an adder as shown in
Fig. The carrier and modulating signals are the two inputs to the analog multiplier.
 The output of analog multiplier is given by

Eq. gives the two sidebands of the AM wave. A summer is used to add carrier to them to
generate complete AM wave. The output of summer is given by (keeping K=1)
Demodulation of AM signal
 In a communication system, the message signal is recovered from the modulated signal
at the receiver end.
 This is done with the process known as demodulation or detection.
 The demodulation may be defined as the process of recovering the message signal from
the modulated signal.
 There are two types of AM detectors: Envelope detector and Square law detector.
 Using Envelope Detector
 An ideal envelope detector produces an output wave which exactly follows the
envelope of the input signal waveform.
 The envelope detector is used in all the commercial AM radio receivers.
 Envelope detector consists of a diode (an ideal diode) and an RC filter.
 

Radio Frequency Signal Rectified Signal Demodulated Signal

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