B102 ESE 

Cheatsheet
*not meant for revision purposes. This is just me compiling stuff from
the 6P slides so that we don't have to scroll through unnecessary stuff to
get the info we need. Refer to content page to see what slide you need,
or just use Crtl+F lmao
Lesson Content Slide Lesson Content Slide
1 What is Personality? 4 7 Perception 37
The 5 Big Personality traits 5 Perceptual Errors 38

2 Components of Self-Concept 7 Strats to minimize Perceptual Errors 39

The 3 Components of Attitude 8 8 Principles of Negotiation 41

Reservation Point & Zone of Possible Agreement (ZOPA) 42
Sources of self-efficacy 9
Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA) 43
Locus of Control 10
Conflict Handling Styles 44
3 Maslow's Needs Theory of Motivation 12
9 Decision-Making Pitfalls 46
McClelland's Learned Needs Theory 14
Possible strategies to minimise pitfalls 47-48
Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation 15
10 Sources of Power 50
Job Characteristic Model & Core Job Characteristics 16
Influence Techniques 51
Common Job Redesign Methods 17
Organisational Politics 52
4 Equity Theory 19
Contingencies of Power 53
Vroom's Expectancy Theory 20
11 Traits Theory 55
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation 21
Behavioural Theory 56-57
Reasons for Failure to Motivate 22
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership 58-60
Goal Setting Theory 23
12 Restraining Forces vs Driving Forces 62
5 Eustress and Distress 25
Lewin's Change Management Model 63
Emotional Intelligence [EI] Competencies 26
Common Sources of Resistance 64
Sandwich Feedback Technique 27
Weakening Restraining Forces 65
Responses to Job Dissatisfaction 28
13 Organisation Structure 67-69
Non-verbal Expressions of Emotions 29
The Environment 70-71
Emotional Dissonance 29
Organisational Culture Dimensions 72
6 When to work in teams, Pros and Cons, Components of an Effective Team 31
Elements of Organisational Culture 73-74
Right People, Clear Processes, Supportive Organisational and Team 32
Environment Strategies to Change and Strengthen Culture 75
Good Relationships 33
Tuckman's Stages of Team Development 34
Strategies to facilitate Team Development 35
Lesson 1 (Personality & Abilities)
 What is Personality? (slide 4)
 The 5 Big Personality traits (slide 5)
What is Personality?
• Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that
are organizes and relatively enduring and that influence his or her
interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical and social environments
• Personality consists of all the psychological qualities and processes that bring
continuity to an individual's behaviour in different situations and across different
times.
• Shaped by the combined forces of biological, situational and mental processes.
Big 5 Dimensions of Personality
• Openness
• Tendency to enjoy new experiences, ideas and
diversity
• Conscientiousness
• Tendency to show self-discipline, be dutiful
and strive for achievement and competence
• Extraversion
• Tendency to seek simulation and be energised
and enthusiastic when with people
• Agreeableness
• Tendency to be compassionate towards
others and seek social harmony
• Neuroticism
• Tendency to easily experience unpleasant
emotions.
• Research shows that high
Conscientiousness and low Neuroticism equals to better
individual performance across most jobs
• Other dimensions could also affect job performance:
• Agreeableness
• High --> interpersonal aspects (e.g. getting
along with others)
• Low --> situations that require tough and
objective decisions  
• Extroversion
• High --> specific occupations (e.g. salespeople,
managers, police officers)
• Openness to Experience
• High --> jobs in creative industry and where
adaptability is needed
• Low --> conventional and down-to-earth jobs
such as police work, some service-related jobs 
Lesson 2
 Components of Self-Concept (slide 7)
 The 3 Components of Attitude (slide 8)
 Sources of self-efficacy (slide 9)
 Locus of Control (slide 10)
Self-concept and Values
 Attitude: relatively stable cluster of
The 3 Components of Attitude beliefs, feelings, intentions towards a
specific object (e.g. self, people, things,
concepts, events, etc.)

 Beliefs Example:
 Things you believe about the
object, whether true or false
 Assessed Feelings
 General evaluation of the object –
like/dislike, feeling good/bad (note
that 
 Behavioural Intentions
 What you are motivated to do

This cognitive process influences

behaviour, the actual response
when presented with the object
Sources of self-efficacy:
 Prior Experience
 Experience in achieving success in similar
areas of work through perseverant effort
 Behaviour Models
 Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by
sustained effort
 Persuasion From Others
 Verbal persuasion from others that one has
the capabilities to master given activities
 Assessment of Physical/Emotional State
 Positive interpretation / assessment of
implications of physical capabilities or
emotional states (e.g. mood and stress
tensions)
Self-efficacy refers to the strength of
your belief in your ability to achieve
goals.
Self-esteem is a realistic respect for
your ability to achieve and thrive in life,
while self-efficacy is how you feel
about your ability to function in
different situations.
You may have healthy self-esteem (I
could do it if I wanted to) but low self-
efficacy (I probably don't want it
enough to complete it).
Locus of Control
Locus of control is the general belief about personal control over
life events
 External locus of control
 Success/failure attributed to factors beyond personal control such as
luck, fate and environment
 E.g. Evan believes that doing well in the test depends on whether his
teacher is lenient or strict. He tries to ‘spot’ questions that his teacher
might ask and prays for the best.  
 Internal locus of control
 Belief that one controls key events and consequences in one’s life
 E.g. Din believes that only he is responsible for how well he does in his
test. He studies very hard and makes sure that he is fully prepared for
any question that the teacher might pose. 
Lesson 3
 Maslow's Needs Theory of Motvation (slide 12)
 McClelland's Learned Needs Theory (slide 14)
 Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation (slide 15)
 Job Characteristic Model & Core Job Characteristics (slide 16)
 Common Job Redesign Methods (slide 17)
Maslow's Needs Theory ofNeeds
Motivation
Description
 People can have many needs but their lowest unsatisfied
level will be the strongest arousal.  Self-Actualisation Desire to be true to own nature and realise
personal  potential - need for personal growth, self-
fulfilment in areas of passion and individuality. 
 When lower level is satisfied, the next higher level
becomes main motivator. 
Esteem Needs Wanting self-esteem or respect of others - need for
achievement, mastery, independence, recognition,
 If a level is not satisfied, people will get frustrated and importance, prestige, dignity, dominance and etc. 
this level will remain the main motivator until it is
satisfied. Social Needs  Wanting to be free from loneliness or rejection -
desire for companionship, acceptance or being part
(Belongingness of a group, love, social interaction and etc. 
and Love) 

Safety Needs Wanting to be free from (or avoidance from)

physical or emotional harm - free from fear, anxiety
or chaos; need for stability, law and order,
protection and etc.
Physiological Refers to needs vital for survival such as need for
Needs food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, procreation,
excretion and maintenance of other bodily
functions. 
Extra stuff that might be useful

5-Stage Model was later

expanded to include
cognitive, aesthetic and
transcendence needs (in
the 1960’s and 1970’s) 
McClelland's Learned Needs Theory
Need for: Characteristics
Achievement People with a strong need for achievement love challenging goals. They
excel if there is a clear standard for performance. They generally strive
to succeed.

Affiliation People with a strong need for affiliation desire to build and

maintain friendly & close interpersonal relationships. As such,
they generally conform to others’ wishes and try to avoid any conflict or
confrontation. 

Power People with a strong need for power want power for personal gains or
interests (Personal Power) or want power to help others (Social Power). 

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Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation coming from the expectation
of rewards or punishments conditional
upon the actions and decisions of others.
Salary, Cash Prizes, Candies for student
for correct answer, good grades in exam,
free gifts.
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation coming from the expectation
of rewards or punishments conditional
upon the actions and decisions of self.
Personal aspirations, life-goals, excellence
in sports, being healthy, pursuing to look
pretty, to be knowledgeable, to be rich

Mark decides to dress up for tonight’s “I am excited by what I do. This is not just
dinner as he knows his client is picky a job but a chance to discover cures for
about dressing and a good first illnesses and save thousands of lives. This
impression help in clinching the deal.  is what keeps me going.”
Kayla decides to work overtime despite Paula likes her job. She gets to see brides
being on MC as she knows she can get in beautiful dresses and makeup. The
double the pay.  knowledge of seeing her clients happy
motivates her to do a good job.
Job Characteristic Model Core Job Description
Characteristics
How Core Job Characteristics lead to higher
employee engagement, motivation and Skill variety Degree to which a job involves a variety of
different activities and involves the use of a
satisfaction: number of different skills and talents of the
employee

Task identity Degree to which a job requires completion of a

“whole” and identifiable piece of work—that
is, doing a job from beginning to end with a
visible outcome.

Task Significance Degree to which the job has a substantial

impact on the lives of other people, whether
those people are in the immediate
organisation or in the external environment.

Autonomy Degree to which the job provides substantial

freedom and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and determining the work
procedures.

Feedback from Degree to which the work provides the

job individual clear information about the
effectiveness of his/her performance.
Common Job Redesign Methods
 Job Enlargement
 Increasing variety of tasks one does at the same level of
responsibility
 E.g. bakery assistant who prepares the dough is now involved
with preparing the lotus seed paste for mooncakes
 Job Rotation
 Changing tasks one does on the job to other tasks on the same
level of responsibilities.
 E.g. bakery assistant who used to prepare the dough for
baguette is no longer doing preparing the dough now. Instead he
is now working on preparing the lotus seed paste for mooncakes
 Job Enrichment
 Increasing responsibility and/or assigning higher level tasks
 E.g. bakery assistant who used to prepare the dough for
baguette is now also involved in baking and inspecting the
baguette; or the bakery assistant is now in-charge of managing a
new bakery assistant in the shop
Lesson 4
 Equity Theory (slide 19)
 Vroom's Expectancy Theory (slide 20)
 Reinforcement Theory of Motivation (slide 21)
 Reasons for Failure to Motivate (slide 22)
 Goal Setting Theory (slide 23)
Equity Theory
Do I believe that my rewards are fair compared to
someone else like me?
("Fair" meaning equitable rewards, not equal rewards.)
Work input: Contributions of the staff to the organization
Outcomes/Rewards: What the staff receives in return
Resolving: How to resolve:
Positive Inequity  Reduce My Outcomes or Increase His Outcomes (e.g. ask for my
(I believe I am over-rewarded --> feel guilty --> take actions to reduce rewards to be reduced or his rewards to be increased). 
inequality)  Increase My input (to match my rewards) or Reduce His Input (ask
him to reduce input to match his rewards). 
 Change Perception (convince myself that perhaps my input is
actually better than his - I might not know something that my boss
knows). 
 Shift Comparison Other (to someone who is equitable with me).

Negative Inequity  Actions that can be taken are similar to dealing with positive
(I believe I am under-rewarded --> feel angry --> take actions to reduce inequity but in opposite direction (e.g.: ask for my rewards to be
inequality.) increased or his rewards to be decreased). Similarly, the
comparison other can be changed to someone who is equitable
with me. 
 While all these options are available, not everything is practical to
do in real life (e.g. asking his rewards to be decreased).
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy
 A person’s estimate of the probability of job-
related effort will result in a given level of
performance. (effort will lead to acceptable
performance)
 “Do I think I can achieve assigned goals?”
 Instrumentality
 An individual’s estimate of the probability that a
given level of achieved tasks performance will
lead to various work outcomes. (performance will
be rewarded)
 “Do I believe that I will definitely get rewarded or
get better rewards for better performance?”
 Valence
 The strength of an employee’s preference for a
particular reward. (the value of the rewards is
highly positive)
 “Is the reward of value to me? Does it meet my
needs?”
Possible reasons for:
 Low expectancy
 Low self-efficacy
 Desired performance level is far beyond the person's
capabilities
 Achieving desired performance depends on
factors beyond your control
 Performance standards are unclear
 Low Instrumentality
 Performance is not considered in rewarding a person
 Performance is not measured fairly or accurately
 Lack of trust in evaluator to keep promise of reward
 Low Valence
 Reward does not satisfy needs
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation​
​ ...something they LIKE​
GIVE TO the person...​ Positive Reinforcement​
Positive behaviour followed by
positive consequences​
(Manager praises the employee)​
TAKE AWAY from the person...​ Extinction​
Negative behaviour followed by
removal of positive  consequences​
(Manager bans use of handphone
to minimise distraction at work)​
Haha I totally didn't copy this from the
B233 MSA cheatsheet what do you
mea-
...something they DISLIKE​
Punishment​
Negative behaviour followed by
negative consequences​
(Manager scolds the employee)​
Negative Reinforcement​
Positive behaviour followed by
removal of negative consequences​
(Manager stops nagging the
employee)​
Failure to Motivate:
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Originates from oneself Originates from the environment
Main categories Main categories
v Meaningfulness v Monetary rewards 
v Progress v Professional rewards
v Competence Promotion, challenging assignment,
v Choice award 
v Social rewards
Recognition, praise
REASONS FOR FAILURE TO MOTIVATE:
• Change in interest or aspiration  • Too much emphasis on
• Personal problems affecting interest monetary rewards
in work • Rewards become entitlement
• Rewards lack ‘appreciation effect’
• Long delay between performance
and rewards --> loses reinforcement
effect
• One-size-fits-all rewards
Goal Setting Theory
Each element of the goal-setting theory must
be present to motivate staff. 
Lesson 5
 Eustress and Distress (slide 25)
 Emotional Intelligence [EI] Competencies (slide 26)
 Sandwich Feedback Technique (slide 27
 Responses to Job Dissatisfaction (slide 28)
 Non-verbal Expressions of Emotions (slide 29)
 Emotional Dissonance (slide 29)
Eustress and Distress
 What is stress?
Reducing stress:
 Adaptive response to situation seen as challenging/threatening to the person’s well-
being.   Minimising/removing stressors. 
 Complex emotion that prepares us for fight or flight.  Withdrawing from the stressor (e.g.
taking a vacation). 
 What are stressors?
 Changing stress perceptions (e.g. instead
 Causes of stress - environmental condition that places a physical or emotional
demand on the person.  of seeing a tough situation as a problem,
 Some common workplace stressors include:  see it as a learning opportunity or a
 Harassment and incivility  chance to show one’s skills in managing
 Work overload  such situations). 
 Low task control  Controlling stress consequences (e.g.
 Eustress: Stress evoked by positive emotions or events minimising impact of stress and increasing
 This is good because one feels confident, adequate and stimulated by the challenge ability to manage stress through healthy
you experience from the stressor.  lifestyle / keeping fit both physically and
 Examples: Starting a new job, marriage, moving etc.
mentally). 
 Distress: Stress evoked by negative emotions or events  Providing social support (e.g. creating
 This is bad as it can cause anxiety, feels unpleasant, decreases performance and can system and networks that allow staff to
lead to mental and physical problems.  share and solve their problems at work).
 Examples: Death of family, injury or illness, financial problems etc.
 Consequences of excess Distress:
 Physiological: Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, headaches
 Behavioral: Poor work performance / decisions, accidents, absenteeism, aggression
 Psychological: Dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue 
EI Competencies
SELF OTHERS
Self-Awareness Self-Management
 Emotional self-awareness  Empathy
RECOGNITION OF  Reading one’s own emotions and Linked  Seeing others’ emotions, understanding
EMOTIONS recognising their impact to: their perspective and taking an active
interest in their concerns

Linked to: Linked to:

Social Awareness Relationship Management
 Emotional self-control  Developing Others
 Keeping disruptive emotions and  Bolstering others’ abilities through
impulses under control  feedback and guidance
 Transparency  Conflict Management
REGULATION OF  Displaying honesty and integrity to Linked  Resolving disagreements
EMOTIONS self  to:
 Adaptability
 Flexibility in adapting to changing
situations or overcoming obstacles
 Optimism
 Seeing the upside in events
Sandwich Feedback Technique
Step​  Example​
1​ Praise​ You are doing a great job coming early everyday.​

2​ Coach​ The frosting of the cupcakes are a little messy though, and can be neater. ​

3​ Discuss​ Perhaps you were a little tired? How do you think you can work your
frosting in the morning?​

4​ Agree That’s a good suggestion, let’s work on that. And continue doing your good
& Encourage​ work! ​
Job Satisfaction and responses to Job
Dissatisfaction
Job satisfaction: Person's evaluation of his or her job and work context
 Exit
 Leaving the situation
 Quitting, transferring
 Voice
 Changing the situation
 Problem solving, complaining
 Loyalty
  Patiently waiting for the situation to improve
 Neglect
 Reducing work effort/quality
 Increasing absenteeism
Non-verbal Expressions of Emotions Emotional Dissonance
 Body Language and Posture
 Conscious and unconscious movements and postures.   Emotional labour can be challenging for
 E.g. folding of arms, turning away, leg crossing  most people because it is difficult to
 Facial Expressions conceal true emotions and to display the
 Information communicated using the face.  emotions required by the job --
 E.g. smile, frown > Emotional Dissonance: The conflict
 Gestures between required and true emotions.
 Deliberate movement and signals.   In an organisation, staff might be expected
 E.g. waving, pointing to display certain emotions during
 Proxemics interpersonal transactions. 
 Amount of distance we need, and amount of space we perceive as  Difficult to display expected emotions
belonging to us, in relation to another person. 
accurately and hide true emotions -->
 E.g. space required when conversing
Emotional Labour: Effort and control
 Eye Gaze needed to express organisationally desired
 Differences in looking, staring and blinking. 
emotions during interpersonal
 E.g. steady eye contact, shifty eyes
transactions.
 Haptic
 Communicating through touch. 
 E.g. hugs, tapping of arm
 Appearance
 Choice of colour, clothing and hairstyles. 
 E.g. unkempt 
Lesson 6
 When to work in teams, Pros and Cons, Components of an Effective
Team (slide 31)
 Right People, Clear Processes, Supportive Organisational and Team
Environment (slide 32)
 Good Relationships (slide 33)
 Tuckman's Stages of Team Development (slide 34)
 Strategies to facilitate Team Development (slide 35)
Working in Teams
When to choose to work in teams?
 Work is complex and require difference perspectives
 Need to achieve something bigger than just aggregate of the goals for individuals
 Members will be involved in interdependent tasks
Pros Cons
When building and effective team, you need:
Compared to individuals working alone, teams tend to:  Right people
 Clear processes
• Make better decisions • Working individually  Good relationships
• Make better might be better/faster  Supportive Organizational and Team Environment
products/services due for simple tasks
to more • Takes time and An effective team:
knowledge/expertise resources to coordinate  Achieves organisational goals
• Increase employee work as well as  Satisfies needs of members
engagement manage unproductive  Maintains team survival
behaviours such as
social loafing and
conflicts
Right People
Right Personality Conscientiousness, openness to experience and agreeableness all relate to team performance

Right Abilities Technical expertise as well as problem-solving / decision-making and interpersonal skills are needed

Right Attitude Members want to be part of the team and value teamwork
Right Size Large enough to supply needed competencies/manpower but small enough for easy coordination and
meaningful involvement of all members (popular rule: 5 -7 people) 

Right Mix Homogeneity (members are alike - personality, experience, etc.) is good for bonding but heterogeneity is
needed for teams attempting unfamiliar / innovative tasks 

Supportive Organisational and Team Environment

Clear Processes
Common Every member agrees on the purpose of the team and Adequate Support from the organisation such as
Purpose commits towards achieving the purpose Resources timely information, proper equipment,
senior management support for work
Clear Work procedures, goals and standards are jointly agreed to activities and cooperation from other
Expectations by members teams
Clear Roles Members are aware of their roles and accept allocation of Effective Facilitating decision-making and how
roles within the team (e.g. Belbin’s team roles) Leadership team fits together to integrate
individual skills
Clear Rules What are acceptable/non-acceptable behaviours are clear Team-based Need to consider team-based appraisal
Rewards and tying part of an individual’s
Clear Control Members actively manage unproductive behaviours (e.g. rewards to team’s overall achievements
Processes conflicts) 
Good Relationships
Good Communication Members listen effectively and communicate openly
Identification-based Trust Members know and understand each other so well that they are willing to allow another member
to decide/act on their behalf.  The major factors that influence trust are: 
 Familiarity --> know each other through contact in the past 
 Shared experience --> experienced many of the same things together (e.g. suffered through
crises together) 
 Reciprocal disclosure --> have shared personal information with each other --> closer
interpersonal relationship 

Strong Cohesiveness Members feel as part of the team and identify themselves with the team. Factors that increase
team cohesion:
 Frequent Interaction 
 Homogeneity --> similarity-attraction effect 
 Smaller team size --> easier to agree on goals and coordinate activities 
 Somewhat difficult entry --> more elite the team, the more prestige it confers, the more people
value their membership in the team 
 Past successes --> people like to identify themselves with successful teams rather than one with
a string of failures 
 External competition and challenge --> people value their membership if it helps them overcome
threats 
Tuckman's Stages of Team Development:
Stage 1: Forming Stage 2: Storming Stage 3: Norming Stage 4: Performing
This stage is characterised by:
Uncertainty Conflict Agreements Achievements
Members attempt to: Members:  With structural  Since structure, leadership
 Discover team’s purpose,  Resist the constraints disagreements resolved, and relationship issues
structure and leadership as imposed on their members now focus on have been resolved,
well as what they are individuality (e.g. rules, how they want to work and members now focus on
expected to do and how etc.)  function as a team  achieving their goals 
they are expected to  Compete for team roles &  Team becomes more  There is efficient
behave  leadership  cohesive as feelings of coordination of work,
 Get to know & assess each  Voice their dissatisfaction camaraderie and shared clarity of roles as well as
other  with others  responsibility increase  high levels of cooperation
 Evaluate the benefit of  Try to influence team to and trust
being part of the team accept their  goals / ideas
This stage is completed when:
Members think of themselves Major conflicts are resolved Members accept common set Goals have been completed
as part of the team and there is a relatively clear of expectations on how to do
hierarchy of leadership things

Stage 5: Adjourning
Team disbands when there is little value in
keeping the team
Strategies to facilitate Team Development
 Forming
 To reduce uncertainty:
 Clarify team’s purpose and  goal expectations 
 Bring team together to work on common tasks - opportunities for interaction among
members
 Also:
 Define team-based reward structure
 Storming
 To manage conflicts:
 Agree on process to resolve conflicts
 Allow conflicts to be raised  for discussion 
 Focus on solving the conflict, rather than assigning blame 
 Clarify members’ level of authority and areas of responsibility
 Norming
 Facilitate discussions among members to refine processes and rules 
 Develop capacity to compensate for individual weaknesses 
 Create opportunities for casual interaction among members to strengthen
cohesion
Lesson 7
 Perception (slide 37)
 Perceptual Errors (slide 38)
 Strats to minimize Perceptual Errors (slide 39)
What is Perception?
The process of receiving information about
and making sense of the world around us:
 deciding which information to notice Social Perception: 
 how to categorise this information
A Social Information Processing Model

 how to interpret information within our

existing knowledge framework

Click to add tex

  Retrieve information
 People do not have  Raw information Information stored
into long- from memory
the mental capacity to is interpreted to make
fully comprehend all the into categories term memory.
decisions/ judgments
competing environmental and evaluated. .
stimuli.
 Selectively perceive
subsets of environmental
stimuli.
Type of Definition
Perceptual Error
Stereotype  The process of assigning traits to ppl based on their membership in a social category
 This is an individual's set of beliefs abt the characteristics or attributes of a group. Stereotypes are not always negative
 Stereotypes may or may not be accurate
Halo Effect  A perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one strong/positive characteristic,
colours our perception of other characteristics of that person. 
Horn Effect  A perceptual error whereby our general impression of a person, usually based on one weak/negative characteristic,
colours our perception of other characteristics of that person. 
Recency Effect  A perceptual error in which the most recent information dominates one's perception of others.
 The tendency to rmb recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively
Primacy Effect  A perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of people based on the first information we receive about them.
 If the first info received abt a person is negative, it could give an underserved advantage, and vice versa when the info
is positive
Similar-to-me  The perceiver tends to give more favourable evaluations to people who are similar to themselves in terms of background
Effect or attitudes.
 Ppl tend to like others who have the same interests, attitudes, and thoughts with them.
Self-serving Bias  A perceptual error whereby people tend to attribute their favourable outcomes to internal factors and their failures to
external factors.
Fundamental  The tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person’s behaviour.
Attribution  Occurs when observers cannot easily see the external factors that constrain a person's behaviour
Error
Contrast Error  Perception of performance exaggerated as a result of conscious/subconscious comparison with another person
 A performance rating error in which an employee's evaluation is biased either upward or downward because of
comparison with another employee just recently evaluated
Strategies to minimize Perceptual Errors

Strategies​ Descriptions​

Evaluate people based The more objective the information you use to judge
on objective factors​ others, the less your judgements will be subject to
perceptual distortion.​

Avoid making rash judgments​ Take the time to get to know people better before
convincing yourself that you already know all you need to know
about them.​

Focus on goals​ Clear goals make decision making easier and help you
to eliminate options that are inconsistent with your interests.​
Lesson 8
 Principles of Negotiation (slide 41)
 Reservation Point & Zone of Possible Agreement (ZOPA) (slide 42)
 Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA) (slide 43)
 Conflict Handling Styles (slide 44)
Principles of Negotiation
“A process through which two or more parties move from their initially divergent positions to a point where
agreement is reached.”
 Separate People from Problem
 Understand differences in perception 
 Deal with emotions 
 Listen actively
 Invent Options for Mutual Gains
 Look for items that are of low cost to you and high benefit to them 
 Separate invention process from the evaluation stage
 Focus on Interest, not Position
 Position - something you have decided upon 
 Interests - what caused you to decide so 
 Keep a clear focus on interests, but remain open to different proposals and positions
 Insist on Objective Criteria
 Agree which criteria are best - legitimate and practical 
 Create fair procedure 
 for resolving dispute
Reservation Point & Zone of Possible Agreement (ZOPA) 
Seller Buyer Reservation Point 
 Buyer’s reservation point is the
 Opening Point - starting  Opening Point - starting maximum price that he is able and
point (maximum desired)  point (minimum desired)  willing to pay 
 Target Point - desired  Target Point - desired  Seller’s reservation point is the
minimum price that he is able and
agreement point  agreement point  willing to accept 
 Reservation Point - lowest  Reservation Point -
that one is able and willing highest that one is able ZOPA (Zone of Possible Agreement) 
and willing to go for  ZOPA is the price range that is of
to go for possible agreement to both parties

 The buyer’s reservation point must

be higher (or at least equal to) the
seller’s reservation point for ZOPA
to exist 
 There is no ZOPA if the buyer’s
reservation point is lower than the
seller’s reservation point
Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)
Your BATNA is your preferred course of action in the absence of a
deal. Knowing your BATNA means knowing what you'll do or
what will happen if you do not reach agreement.
 It is your last-ditch effort to save the negotiation before needed
to walk away. 
 Helps you decide when to break off negotiation. 
 Your BATNA determines
 The better your BATNA, the greater your bargaining power. the point at which you can
Developing BATNA say no to an unfavourable
 Create a list of actions to take if no agreement is reached;  proposal. 
 Thus it is critical to know
 Improve some of the more promising ideas and convert them your BATNA before
into practical alternatives; and  entering into any
 Select, tentatively, the one alternative that seems best based on: negotiation. 
 If you don't, you won't
 Cost 
know whether a deal
 Practicality  makes sense or when to
 Effectiveness walk away.
 Conflict Preferred style when…​ Cons​ Thomas-Kilmann Modes of
Handling Style​
Conflict Resolution
Avoiding​  Emotionally charged​  Does not resolve conflict​
 Cost of resolving conflict is higher  Can increase
than benefits​ frustration for other
 More information is required​ party ​

Competing  Have deep conviction about your  Highest risk of

(Forcing) position  relationship conflict,
 Need quick resolution  results in reducing future
 Other party would take advantage of problem-solving
cooperation 

Accommodating  Other party has much more power   Increases other party’s

(Yielding)  Issue less important to you than other expectations in future
party  conflict episodes
 Value/logic of your position is unsteady 

Compromising  Parties have equal power   Sub-optimal solution

 Quick solution needed  where mutual gains are
 Parties lack trust and openness possible Assertiveness - motivation to satisfy
one’s interests
Collaborating  Interests are not perfectly opposing   Sharing information that Cooperativeness - motivation to satisfy
(Problem  Parties have trust and openness  the other party might other party’s interests
Solving)  Issues are complex use to their advantage
Lesson 9
 Decision-Making Pitfalls (slide 46)
 Possible strategies to minimise pitfalls (slide 47-48)
Name of Pitfall Description
Anchoring Tendency to be affected by the initial information or suggestion that we received (known as ‘anchor’) and
Heuristics  then making subsequent decisions by adjusting around this anchor. 
Availability We do not consciously deliberate on all the facts and alternatives but tend to make decisions based on
Heuristics  readily available information, which are either (a) what we are currently experiencing or (b) what we can
readily recall from memory (especially recent, widely discussed or more emotional incidents).
Confirmation Bias A tendency to readily accept information that supports what we believe (but at the same time discounting
the information that challenges us). Also, a tendency to seek out only information that will support us. 
Escalation of Staying with a decision that we made in the past and investing more into it when even there is clear
Commitment Bias  evidence that it is wrong.
Solution-focused A tendency to seek closure to a problem by immediately identifying our preferred solution (either a
Problem  favourite solution or what has worked in the past)and then defining our problem in terms of this solution
and how to implement it (without analysing the real root cause of the problem). 
Stakeholder Occurs when people with vested interest try to influence how we perceive something so that we will make
Framing decisions that are favourable to them (and these decisions might not be in our best interest).
Representativenes Tendency to form associations between two things based on past experiences or assumptions and then
s Heuristics  applying this association to make decisions.
Attribute Framing  Tendency for people to evaluate the same attribute (i.e. a quality or characteristic) more positively when
you describe it in positive words than when you describe it in negative words. Applicable when
evaluating/selling a product or an idea.
Goal Framing Tendency for people to be more strongly persuaded when you tell them the negative consequences of a
behaviour compared to when you tell them the positive consequences of doing something. Applicable when
persuading people to change behaviour.
Possible strategies to minimise pitfalls – Nominal Group
Technique (NGT)
A technique, similar to brainstorming, to generate ideas on a particular subject.
Team members are asked to silently write down as many ideas as possible. Each
member is asked to share one idea per round, which is recorded. After all ideas are
recorded, they are discussed and prioritized by the group.
Use NGT when:
 Some group members are much more vocal than others
 Some group members think better in silence
 There is concern about some members not participating
 The group does not easily generate quantities of ideas
 Some or all group members are new to the team
 The issue is controversial or there is heated conflict
Possible strategies to minimise pitfalls – Why-why Diagram
Why-Why works by repeatedly asking the
same question of a problem, breaking down
the cause or solution into more and more
explicit elements. At each stage, there can
be multiple answers to the 'Why' questions,
which results in a hierarchical tree-structure.

Making this tree visible gives several

advantages:
  It allows a group of people to share the
mental model of the situation and hence
work more harmoniously on it.
 It allows re-examination of parts of the
analysis, so you can change, remove or add
to it at any time. This supports the non-
linear way in which we tend to think.
 It allows you to consciously not to follow
some paths, digging only into the most likely
areas.
Lesson 10
 Sources of Power (slide 50)
 Influence Techniques (slide 51)
 Organisational Politics (slide 52)
 Contingencies of Power (slide 53)
Source of Power Description what do you even call this
Legitimate Power Derived from one’s position in
organisation; accepted authority of
one’s position
Reward Power Derived from one’s capacity to give
valued rewards (positive
Positional Powers
reinforcement) or remove sanctions
(negative reinforcement)
Coercive Power Derived from one’s capacity to
administer punishment or remove
benefits (extinction)
Expert Power Derived from one’s recognised
superior skills, knowledge or
abilities in a certain area
Referent Power Derived from how much one is Personal Powers
admired / liked by others; others
identify with / relate to this
individual
Influence Techniques Description Easier with ______ Power
Rational Persuasion Using logical arguments and facts to persuade Expert
Exchange Promising some benefits upon complying with
request Reward

Pressuring Seeking compliance through warning, threat,

repeated demands or intimidation Coercive

Legitimating Highlighting one’s formal authority to make

request OR stressing that request is consistent
with organisational policies and practices Legitimate

Personal Appeal Appealing to feelings of loyalty, friendship OR

seek compliance as personal favour Referent

Inspirational Appeal Arousing enthusiasm by appealing to one’s

values, hopes, needs or aspirations Referent

Ingratiation Getting one in a good mood OR getting them to

relate to and like you OR using flattery and
praise before making request 
Consultation Asking one to participate in decision-making or NA
planning change to increase support
Coalition-Building Enlisting support of others or telling targeted
person about support you already have
 Organisational Politics
Organisational politics are behaviours that are done to serve the interests of the individual or
group. There are eight political tactics and the tactics are similar to influence techniques.

According to research, the eight political tactics below are often used in the workplace: 
 Attacking or blaming others 
 Using information as a political tool 
 Creating a favourable image (also known as impression management) 
 Developing a base of support 
 Praising others (ingratiation) 
 Forming power coalitions with strong allies 
 Associating with influential people 
 Creating obligations (reciprocity) 

Influence techniques can be perceived as organisational politics when observers view the
tactics as self-serving behaviours at the expense of others, and sometimes contrary to the
interests of the entire organisation or work unit.
Contingencies of Power
Four contingencies will determine whether power will be converted to influence.
 Substitutability - availability of alternatives. Power is strongest when one has a
monopoly over a valued resource, tasks or knowledge. 
 Centrality - degree and nature of interdependence between power holder and
others (i.e. number of people affected, speed at which others are affected). 
 High centrality: most people adversely affected by your absence and they would be
affected quickly. 
 Discretion - freedom to make decisions without referring to specific rule or
receiving permission from someone else. 
 Visibility - known to others; only when a person’s source of power is visible will
it be meaningful. 
Lesson 11
 Traits Theory (slide 55)
 Behavioural Theory (slide 56-57)
 Michigan Studies
 Ohio State Studies
 Path-Goal Theory of Leadership (slide 58-60)
Traits Theory Examples:
 Read up the pre-class materials and do some research
 Focuses on the
beforehand (improves self-confidence and
personal qualities of
intelligence). 
the leader.   Set good example by completing your tasks on time, be
 There are some punctual for all meetings, and sacrifice your lunch break
leadership traits that if you need to, to meet the deliverables (demonstrates
appear consistently determination). 
over different studies:  Communicate expectations of team
 Intelligence performance/experience, set clear goals in Learning
 Self-confidence Phase 1 on the directions of  your day’s  presentation ,
 Determination and gets along well with teammates (exhibits
 Integrity determination and sociability). 
 Argue for team’s ideas but willing to take responsibility
 Sociability
for mistakes and areas for improvements (shows
intelligence, determination and integrity).
Behavioural Theory – Michigan Studies
The theory states that there are two kinds of leaders: 

Task-oriented leaders:  People-oriented leaders:

    They focus their behaviours on the    They focus their behaviours on ensuring that
organizational structure, the operating the inner needs of the people are satisfied.
procedures (S.O.P.) and they like to keep Thus they will seek to motivate their staff
control.  through emphasising the human relation. 

    They will favour behaviours that are in line    They will favour behaviours that are in line
with:  with: 

 Initiating   Encouraging 
 Organizing   Observing 
 Clarifying   Listening
 Information Gathering  Coaching and Mentoring
Behavioural Theory – Ohio State Studies
 Identified 2 critical dimensions of leader
behaviour: 
 Initiating structure - Organizing and defining
what group members should be doing
 Consideration - Creating mutual respect and
trust with followers
 Ohio studies concluded that a leader can
use both initiating structure and
consideration both at the same. 
 Effective leaders possess a strong ability
to work with others and build a cohesive
team that is balanced with the capability
to create structure within which activities
can be accomplished. 
 Leadership can be developed and
learned.
Path-Goal Theory

These two have to be

determined by the leader
first before deciding the
most appropriate/effective
leadership style to apply.
Path-Goal Theory
Category of Leader
Description of Leader Behaviours​
Behaviour​

Clarifying employees' performance goals, providing guidance

on how employees can complete tasks; clarifying
Directive​
performance standards and expectations; use of positive and
negative rewards contingent on performance​

Provide psychological support for employees; shows concern

Supportive​ for employees; helps employees to cope with stressful
situations​

Facilitating subordinate involvement in decisions  beyond

their normal work activities; encouraging the sharing of
Participative​
minority opinions; asks for suggestions; involves employees
in decision-making​

Achievement- Setting challenging goals; emphasizing

oriented​ excellence; demonstrating confidence in employees' abilities​
Path-Goal Theory

Employee (Follower) Co Directive​ Supportive​ Participative​ Achievement-oriented​

ntingencies​
Skill/​Experience​ Low​ Low​ High​ High​
Locus of Control​ External​ External​ Internal​ Internal​

Environmental Conti Directive​ Supportive​ Participative​ Achievement-oriented​

ngencies​
Task Structure​ Non-Routine​ Routine​ Non-Routine​ (Information unavailable)​
Team Dynamics​ Negative Norms​ Low Cohesion​ Positive Norms​ (Information unavailable)​
Lesson 12
 Restraining Forces vs Driving Forces (slide 62)
 Lewin's Change Management Model (slide 63)
 Unfreeze
 Change
 Refreeze
 Common Sources of Resistance (unfreeze) (slide 64)
 Weakening Restraining Forces (unfreeze) (slide 65)
Restraining Forces vs Driving Forces

Restraining Forces: Resistance to change/reasons why

the change should be opposed or resisted

Driving Forces: Reasons why this change should/might

be supported
Lewin's Change Management Model
Common Sources of Resistance
Sources Description

Direct Costs Losing something of value after change - income, status, control of resources, etc. 

Loss of Face (Saving Accepting change acknowledges own imperfections or past wrongdoing
Face)
Fear of the Unknown Concern about being unable to adjust or risk of uncertainty
Breaking Routines Past practices/habits are valued due to comfort or lower effort needed
Incongruent Team Current norms are contrary to desired change
Dynamics
Incongruent Career, reward, power, communication systems reinforce status quo
Organisational Systems
Strategies to Weaken Description
Resistance
Communication  Highest priority and first strategy for change 
 Reduces uncertainty (fear of unknown) 
 Problem: time consuming and costly
Learning  Provides new knowledge/skills 
 Includes coaching and other forms of learning 
 Helps break old routines, reducing fear of unknown and incongruent team dynamics 
 Problem: potentially time consuming and costly
Involvement  Employees participate in change process 
 Helps loss of face and reducing fear of unknown 
 Includes task forces, future search events 
 Problem: time-consuming, may lead to poor decisions or conflict if staff interests are not compatible
with organisation’s.
Stress Management  When communication, learning, and involvement are not enough to minimise stress 
 Potential benefits: 
 More motivation to change 
 Less fear of unknown 
 Helps break old routines 
 Problem: time-consuming, expensive, doesn’t help everyone
Negotiation  Influence by exchange -- reduces direct costs 
 May be necessary when people clearly lose something and won’t otherwise support change 
 Problem: expensive; gains compliance, not commitment
Coercion  When all else fails 
 Assertive influence 
 Radical form of “unlearning” 
 Problem: reduces trust; may create more subtle resistance; encourage politics to protect job
Lesson 13
 Organisation Structure (slide 67-69)
 Work Specialisation
 Centralisation
 Departmentalisation
 The Environment (slide 70-71)
 Competition
 The Market
 Organisational Culture Dimensions (slide 72)
 Elements of Organisational Culture (slide 73-74)
 Action and Artefacts
 Values and norms
 Basic Assumptions
 Strategies to Change and Strengthen Culture (slide 75)
Organisation Structure – Work Specialisation

The degree to which activities in the organisation are subdivided into separate jobs.
Higher Specialisation Lower Specialisation
 Each job focuses on a specific,  Each job covers more than one
well-defined area of work area of work
 Increases staff work skills  Staff will have a variety of skills
through repetition of narrow but possibly a “jack-of-all-
set of tasks trades, master of none”.
 Best used when:   Best used when:
 Company is large in size.   Company is small in size. 
 Work is routine and simple.  Work is variable and complex.
 Organisation Structure – Centralisation
The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organisation.

Higher Centralisation Lower Centralisation

 Decision-making is made by top management  Decision-making is spread out to include more
junior managers in the hierarchy, as well as
 Competition is Stable and munificent --> individual business units
more time to react to environment   Senior executive won’t be able to process all
 Routine and simple task --> less discretion decisions (diverse)
needed by staff   Lower levels tend to be closer to market and able
 Consistent decisions by experts --> lower cost to respond more quickly (hostile market)
of operations  Staff need more discretion for variable and
 Factors leading to higher centralisation:  innovative work
 The market is stable   Factors leading to lower centralisation: 
 Competition is munificent   The market is dynamic 
 Competition is hostile 
 Work is routine and simple. 
 Work is variable and complex 
 Adopt low-cost leadership strategy 
 Adopt innovation-differentiation strategy
Type of Description Example
Departmentalisation
Functional The organisation is divided according to generic operational
areas/activities. 

Best used when:

The market is stable, competition is munificent
Divisional (Products) The organisation is divided according to the products/services
sold.

Best used when:

The market is dynamic, competition is hostile
Divisional The organisation is divided according to different geographic
(Geography) areas. 

Best used when:

The market is dynamic, competition is hostile, useful when
needs of regions are different. 
Matrix Combines a vertical structure (generally function) with an
equally strong horizontal overlay (generally divisional) to form
a grid with two command structures. 

Best used when:

The market is dynamic, company is large in size
The Environment – Competition
The intensity of rivalry within a market.
Hostile Munificient
 Strong rivalry between organisations  Each focuses on serving its
 Reasons for hostility: Limited customers without having to
resources; saturated or declining compete aggressively
demand from consumers
 In hostile environments, organisations
 Example: Green technologies
need to:  and environmental consulting -
 Make decisions efficiently  Demand for such services
 Be more flexible in operational increasing but not enough
processes  qualified providers
 Be responsive to the demands of the
market / customers.
 The Environment – The Market
Type of Customers: Rate of Change:
1. Diverse  The degree of change within a
 Greater variety of clients; need for market 
different types of products to meet
different needs
1. Dynamic
 High rate of unpredictable changes e.g.
2. Integrated IT technologies
 Single or very few large clients, e.g.
market for weapons in Singapore, or
2. Stable
need for only a single type of product  change is predictable and occurs at a
steady pace, e.g. public education
 In diverse markets:
 Focus on understanding different clients
+ handle varied products
Organisational Culture 
Dimensions​ Dimension Characteristics​

Innovation and Risk- Degree to which employees are encouraged to experiment, seek

Taking​ new opportunities and take risk​

Stability​ Degree to which focus is on maintaining status

quo, predictability, security and rules​
People Orientation​ Degree to which decisions take into account the effect on people
(Respect for People)​ in the organisation; focus is on fairness and tolerance​
Degree to which focus is on the outcomes (as opposed
Outcome Orientation​ to process of achieving them); results-oriented, action-
oriented and high expectations​

Attention to Detail ​ Degree to which employees are expected to pay attention

to details and be analytical / precise at work​
Degree to which staff/work are organised around teams; focus is
Team Orientation​
on collaboration and cooperative behaviours ​
Degree to which employees are competitive rather
Aggressiveness​ than cooperative. ​
Elements of Organisational Culture

 Action and Artefacts

 The six observable (visible) signs of an organisational culture
 Values and norms
 Conscious beliefs 
 Evaluate what is good or bad, right or wrong
 Basic assumptions
 Unconscious, taken-for-granted  perceptions or beliefs 
 Mental models of ideals
Cultural Artefacts
Artefacts are the observable (visible) signs of an organisational culture. 
1. Physical structure: The size, shape, location and age of buildings might suggest a
company’s emphasis on team work or other set of values. Example: RP’s classroom seating
in group formations.
2. Symbol: Symbols are nonverbal language that vibrantly conveys the organisation’s values.
Example: RP’s logo.
3. Organisational language: Words used to describe/address customers, staff, products, etc.
Includes acronyms and jargons. Example: RP’s lecturers are addressed as “faci”.
4. Stories & legends: Stories and legends serve as powerful social prescriptions of the ways
things should (or should not) be done. Example: RP being the first educational institution in
Singapore to adopt the Problem-based Learning.
5. Rituals: Rituals are programmed routines of daily organisational life that dramatises the
organisation’s culture. Example: RP’s Reflection Journal - a daily submission by students.
6. Ceremonies: Ceremonies are planned activities conducted specifically for the benefit of an
audience. Example: RP’s IGNITE! Music Festival is an annual affair solely run by students.
Strategies to Change and Strengthen Culture