Spread-Spectrum Signals For Digital Communications

Spread Spectrum
Why Spread Spectrum ?

Advantages:
◦ Resists intentional and non-intentional interference.
◦ Has the ability to eliminate or alleviate the effect of multipath interference
◦ Can share the same frequency band (overlay) with other users
◦ Privacy due to the pseudo random code sequence (code division multiplexing)
Disadvantages:
◦ Bandwidth inefficient
◦ Implementation is somewhat more complex.
RAHUL NYAMANGOUDAR 2
Basics of Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum (SS) is a means of transmission in which:

◦ 1. The transmitted signal occupies a bandwidth which is much greater than the minimum necessary to send the information.
◦ 2. Spreading is accomplished by means of a spreading signal called a ‘code’ signal, which is independent of the data.
◦ 3. At the receiver, de-spreading is done by correlating the received SS signal with a synchronized replica of the spreading signal.
Basic Block Diagram
Information Channel Channel Output

Modulator Channel Demodulator
Sequence Encoder Decoder Data
Pseudo-random Pseudo-random
pattern generator pattern generator
PSD of Spread and Unspread signal
Power Density ()Watts/Hz
Unspread narrowband signal
Spread wideband signal
R Frequency
Types of Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence (DS) - A carrier is modulated by a digital code sequence in which bit rate is
much higher than the information signal bandwidth.
Frequency Hopping (FH) - A carrier frequency is shifted in discrete increments in a pattern
dictated by a code sequence.
Time Hopping (TH) - Bursts of the carrier signal are initiated at times dictated by a code
sequence.
Hybrid Systems - Use of combination of the above.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
PN Mod-2 Balanced
generator adder modulator
cos(2πfct)
Data Local QPSK

Encoder Adder
oscillator signal
sin(2πfct)
PN Mod-2 Balanced
generator adder modulator
PN and Data Signal
Demodulator for PN Sequences
r(t) yi To
Sampler X
g*(Tc - t) decoder
2bi-1
PN sequence
Chip-rate clock
generator
𝑇 𝑐
r(t)
X X ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡 Sampler
yi To
decoder
𝑜
pi(t) g*(t)
PN signal
Chip-rate clock
generator
𝑇 𝑐
r(t)
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡
yi To
X Sampler X
decoder
𝑜
g*(t)
2bi-1
PN sequence
Chip-rate clock
generator
Few Examples
Few Examples
Processing Gain
Its is the ratio of bandwidth of message signal after spread to the bandwidth of message signal
before spread.
The processing gain is the ratio by which unwanted signals or interference can be suppressed
relative to the desired signal when both share the same frequency channel.
PG = W/R = Tb/Tc = Be =Lc

W  Bandwidth of Spread signal
R  Bandwidth of un-spread signal
Jamming Margin
It is the maximum jammer power to signal power ratio that a spread spectrum receiver can tolerate, while
still maintaining the specified bit-error-rate.
Jamming Margin (JM) = Jav/Pav
Other ways of defining Jamming Margin
The level of interference (jamming) that a system is able to accept and still maintain a specified
level of performance, such as to maintain specified bit-error ratio even though the signal-to-
noise ratio is decreasing.
The jamming ratio is a figure of merit that provides a measure of how invulnerable a system is to
interference .The larger the [J0/Pav] ,the greater is the effect of interference on the system, which
forces to employ a greater processing gain for efficient transmission.
Coding Gain
The gain achieved due to channel coding i.e. the improvement in the SNR (due to insertion or
addition or concatenation of parity bits) due to error control coding scheme used.
Coding Gain (CG) = Rc*dmin
Rc  Code rate of the Channel Encoder
dmin  is minimum hamming distance of the encoder
Un-coded DS Spread Spectrum Signals
Example - Repetition Code
i.e. 1 or 0 is sent multiple time(say n).
Hence here k=1[no of input bit(s)], n is no. of output bits.
11010 11111 11111 00000 11111 00000

Repetition Coder
k=1 n=5
Weight of all zero code is “0”, weight of non-zero code is “n”[n number of 1’s]
Thus dmin is difference between weight of all-zero code and non-zero code, which is “n”.
i.e. dmin = n = weight of non-zero code(w)
Correlation Type Demodulator for Repetition Code
𝑇 𝑏
r(t)
X ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡 Sampler
𝑜
PN sequence
Chip-rate clock Symbol-rate clock
generator
SNR, Code Gain, Processing Gain, Jamming Margin
Code Gain = dmin*Rc = w*Rc = n*(1/n) = 1 = 0 in dB
◦ No coding gain achieved.
Processing Gain = W/R = (1/Tc)/(1/Tb) = Tb/Tc = Lc.

(SNR)dB = (PG)dB +(CG)dB – (JM)dB
(SNR)dB = (PG)dB– (JM)dB
Thus repetition code provides margin against an interference or jamming

signal but does not yield any coding gain.
Coded DS Spread Spectrum Signals
Example 1  Linear code concatenated with a binary repetition code.
Since un-coded repetition code does not yield in any coding gain, a use of linear code along with
repetition code can be taught of as a channel code to improve its coding gain.
One such approach is to use a linear (n1,k) block or convolutional code where n1 ≤ n = k*Lc.
Example 2  Concatenation of two linear code (n,k)
◦ Linear block code (n1,k1) and Convolutional Code (n2,k2)
◦ Two linear block codes
◦ Two convolutional codes
◦ RS code and Convolutional Code
Example
Outer Code Inner Code
k=1 101 Convolutional 11 01 00 01 11 Repetition 111111 000111 000000 000111 111111 n = n1*n2
Coder (n1,k1) n1 = 2 k2 = 1 Coder (n2,k2) n2 = 3
k1 = 1 = 2*3 = 6
Concatenated Code (n,k) = (n1*n2,k)
Coding Gain = Rc*dmin = Rc*wm = (k/n)*wm

where, wm = n2*wm0
wm0  weight of outer code
Thus Coding Gain becomes = Rc*wm =

◦ which is nothing but the coding gain obtained from outer coder [here it is the convolutional coder]
Signal to Noise Ratio
If there is no channel encoding:
(SNR)dB = (W/R)dB – (Jav/Pav)dB
(SNR)dB = (PG)dB – (JM)dB
If error control coding is introduced:
◦ Coding gain should also be accounted for, hence our SNR becomes
Some Applications of Direct
Sequence - Spread Spectrum Signals
Anti-Jammer
Since the transmitted signals are spread over some frequency
band, it is difficult for the jammers to send jamming signals. Parity Martix of Golay (24,12) code
Three Codes commonly used for anti-jamming applications in

DSSS
◦ Golay Code(24,12)
◦ Expurgated Golay (24,11)
◦ Maximum-length shift-register
P=
Generator Matrix for Golay (24,12) code[G24] = [I12x12 |P12x12]

where, subscript 12x12  suggests it’s a 12x12 matrix,
‘I12x12‘  is a identity matrix of rank 12
‘|’  concatenation of two matrices
Anti-Jammer Spectral Representation
(24,12) Golay code
Performance of Golay Codes Used in DS-SS Signal
Low-detectability signal transmission
• Here the signal spectral information is purposely transmitted at low powers compared to
channel noise and thermal noise(seen at receiver), so that the detectability of the transmitted
signal is difficult for unintended users.
• Let the spectral density of additive noise be N0, then over the spreaded signal bandwidth W, the
average noise power is
Nav = No*W
• And let us say the average received signal power at the intended receiver be Pav, then it is said
to be low-detectability signal transmission if:
𝑃𝑎𝑣/𝑁𝑎𝑣≪1
Low-detectability signal transmission
• Without any prior knowledge of PN sequence, the unintended user is unable to take the advantage of processing gain
and coding gain.
• Detection of information-bearing signal is difficult, and such a signal is said to have low probability of being intercepted
(LPI).
Code division multiple access
DS-Spread Spectrum signal was observed to achieve processing gain and coding gain for coded
sequence.
Also different PN sequences result in different spreading and de-spreading sequences.
Thus DS-SS can be used to transmit data of different users over same bandwidth simultaneously.
This type of digital communication in which each user has a distinct PN code for transmitting
over a common channel bandwidth is called Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) or Spread
Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA).
CDMA Channel & Frequency
Reverse Forward
CDMA Channel CDMA Channel
1.25 MHz 1.25 MHz
CDMA Frequency
Channel
45 MHz
Frequency 847.74 MHz 892.74 MHz
Frequency Reuse Comparision
FDMA cells with CDMA cells with

reuse factor N = 7 reuse factor N = 1
Code division multiple access
• The signals from other users appear as a additive noise or interference to the intended
receiver .
• More the number of users, more is the interference, hence degradation of the signal received
at the intended receiver.
How many users can CDMA system
accumulate ?
Let us say  “Nu” number of users available.
Let the average power be Pav for all the Nu users.
Thus for the intended receiver:
◦ The signal power is Pav which is intended for it.
◦ The signal power from other Nu-1 users appears as noise to this intended receiver, thus the total noise
power is J0 = (Nu-1)Pav.
Thus the Jamming to Signal ratio becomes
Example
Let us say that for a given CDMA, where in a Golay (24,12) is used which has dmin
of 8 to achieve performance of around 10-6 error probability when SNR is 20 (not
in dB). Consider two systems whose bandwidth expansion ratio are 100 and
1000. Find the number of users that can be accommodated for both the systems
and comment on the results obtained.
(SNR)dB = (W/R)dB +(Rc*dmin)– (Jav/Pav)dB
Walsh Code Generator
PN Generator
Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Channel Id (0-63) Pilot PN
Sequence
One of 64 possible
2^15-1
1.2288Msym/s 1.2288Mcps
Audio Pilot Baseband

Compressor Channel Shaping
Forward filter
Symbol
Link data R=1/2, K=9 Block Scrambling
Convolutional 19.2kbps Interleaver -90o
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
repetition 24x16 array
Σ
Carrier Output
2400 bps = 384 bits 19.2 Symbol Generator CDMA
1200 bps Cover Baseband
ksym/s signal
Shaping
filter
Sync Paging
Channel Channel
Long Code Generator Decimator

2^42-1 L=64 1.2288Mcps
Mask for Permutations (takes Q-Channel
user i’ every 19.2kchips/s Pilot PN
(42 bit maximum 64 bit)
th Sequence
1.2288
length shift register)
Mchips/s
2^15-1
PN Generator
Convolutional Encoder
 Adds redundancy to data transmissions Incoming Data 9 Element Shift
Register
for error robustness. From Audio
Compressor D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8
· Rate, Rc=1/2,
where Rc = input bits / output bits, Possible rates:
9600bps
 Maintains an output data rate of 4800bps
2400bps
19.2kbps regardless of input rate. 1200bps
XOR / XOR /
Adder Adder
Note, while this is easy to implement at the
transmitter, it is nontrivial to undue at the U(0) U(1)
receiver
PN Generator

Sequence
One of 64 possible
2^15-1
1.2288Msym/s 1.2288Mcps

Forward filter
Symbol
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
Σ
Carrier Output
ksym/s signal
Shaping
filter
Sync Paging
Channel Channel

2^42-1 L=64 1.2288Mcps
th Sequence
1.2288
Mchips/s
2^15-1
PN Generator
Block Interleaving
• Provides Time Diversity.
• Over comes burst errors
PN Generator

Sequence
One of 64 possible
2^15-1
1.2288Msym/s 1.2288Mcps

Forward filter
Symbol
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
Σ
Carrier Output
ksym/s signal
Shaping
filter
Sync Paging
Channel Channel

2^42-1 L=64 1.2288Mcps
th Sequence
1.2288
Mchips/s
2^15-1
PN Generator
Long Code Generator and Scrambler
Long Code
 This sequence will be used to scramble the data and to code when to send a power control bit.
 42 bit maximum length shift register, corresponds to 2^42-1 possible permutations
 Contents of shift register are XOR’d with a public or a private key (depending on the stage of the call) to
generate one output bit at a rate of 1.2288Mcps
 Takes a very long time to repeat.
Scrambler
 Used for Data Encryption. Make call more secure.
 Randomizes data. Prevents the transition of a long series of 1’s or 0’s
PN Generator

Sequence
One of 64 possible
2^15-1
1.2288Msym/s 1.2288Mcps

Forward filter
Symbol
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
Σ
Carrier Output
ksym/s signal
Shaping
filter
Sync Paging
Channel Channel

2^42-1 L=64 1.2288Mcps
th Sequence
1.2288
Mchips/s
2^15-1
PN Generator
Forward Link Channel Structure
Forward CDMA Channel
(1.25 MHz Chl. Tx by Base Stn
Pilot Sync Paging Traffic Traffic Traffic Traffic Traffic

Chl Chl Chl Chl. 1 Chl. 2 Chl. 3 Chl. 4 Chl. 61
W0 W32 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W63
Power Control
Traffic data Sub channel
Forward Link Channel Structure (Multiple Paging Channels)
Forward CDMA Channel
(1.25 MHz Chl. Tx by Base Stn
Pilot Sync Paging Paging Traffic Traffic Traffic

Chl Chl Chl. 1 Chl. 7 Chl. 1 Chl. 2 Chl. 55
W0 W32 W1 W7 W8 W9 W63
Power Control
Traffic data Sub channel
PN Generator

Sequence
One of 64 possible
2^15-1
1.2288Msym/s 1.2288Mcps

Forward filter
Symbol
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
Σ
Carrier Output
ksym/s signal
Shaping
filter
Sync Paging
Channel Channel

2^42-1 L=64 1.2288Mcps
th Sequence
1.2288
Mchips/s
2^15-1
PN Generator
Reverse Link PN code
generator
for Q
channel
1.2288Mchips/s
Audio
Compressor Baseband
Shaping
Forward
filter
Link data R=1/3, K=9
Convolutional 64-ary -90o
9600 bps
4800 bps
Encoder and
Repetition
Block
Interleaver 28.8
Orthogonal
modulator 307.2
1.2288
Msym/s Carrier
Σ
Output
2400 bps ksym/s ksym/s Generato CDMA
1200 bps Baseband r signal
½ chip Shaping
delay filter
Mask for Long code 1.2288Mchips/s

user ‘i’ 1.2288 Mchips/s
generator
PN code
generator
for Q
channel
Effect of pulsed interference on DS-SS Systems
 Processing gain and coding gain provided extra means of improving gain of the signal at the
receiver, thus overcoming the effect of continuous interference or jamming on DSSS.
 There is another jamming threat that has a dramatic effect on the performance of a DS spread
spectrum.
 That threat is transmitting jamming signal that consists of pulses of spectrally flat noise that
covers the entire signal bandwidth W.
Let Jav  Average Jamming Power over bandwidth W.
Then Jo = Jav/W.
 Thus a jammer will transmit pulses at a power Jav/α for a percent of the time.
Effect of pulsed interference on DS-SS Systems
 When jammer is not transmitting:
The bits are assumed to be received error free.
 When jammer is transmitting:
The probability of error for an uncoded DS spread spectrum system is
 Thus the average probability of error is:
 The worst case jamming occurs when:
Anti-Jamming Communication System
Data
Encoder Interleaver Modulator
PN
Generator
Jammer
Channel
State
PN
Generator
Data
Decoder Deinterleaver Demodulator

Spread-Spectrum Signals For Digital Communications

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Spread-Spectrum Signals For Digital Communications

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Spread Spectrum

Why Spread Spectrum ?

Spread spectrum (SS) is a means of transmission in which:

Information Channel Channel Output

Unspread narrowband signal

Spread wideband signal

Data Local QPSK

PG = W/R = Tb/Tc = Be =Lc

Jamming Margin (JM) = Jav/Pav

11010 11111 11111 00000 11111 00000

Processing Gain = W/R = (1/Tc)/(1/Tb) = Tb/Tc = Lc.

Thus repetition code provides margin against an interference or jamming

Coding Gain = Rc*dmin = Rc*wm = (k/n)*wm

Thus Coding Gain becomes = Rc*wm =

(SNR)dB = (PG)dB +(CG)dB – (JM)dB

Three Codes commonly used for anti-jamming applications in

Generator Matrix for Golay (24,12) code[G24] = [I12x12 |P12x12]

1.25 MHz 1.25 MHz

FDMA cells with CDMA cells with

Thus the Jamming to Signal ratio becomes

(SNR)dB = (W/R)dB +(Rc*dmin)– (Jav/Pav)dB

Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Audio Pilot Baseband

Long Code Generator Decimator

Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Audio Pilot Baseband

Long Code Generator Decimator

Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Audio Pilot Baseband

Long Code Generator Decimator

 42 bit maximum length shift register, corresponds to 2^42-1 possible permutations

 Takes a very long time to repeat.

 Used for Data Encryption. Make call more secure.

 Randomizes data. Prevents the transition of a long series of 1’s or 0’s

Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Audio Pilot Baseband

Long Code Generator Decimator

Pilot Sync Paging Traffic Traffic Traffic Traffic Traffic

Pilot Sync Paging Paging Traffic Traffic Traffic

Forward Link Specifies Forward I-Channel

Audio Pilot Baseband

Long Code Generator Decimator

Mask for Long code 1.2288Mchips/s

 Thus the average probability of error is:

 The worst case jamming occurs when:

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Coding Gain = Rcdmin = Rcwm = (k/n)*wm