Lecture Four

.
April 2022
Introduction
Physical and chemical properties of fire
Sources of fire
Basic Characteristics of fire
Stages of fire
Fire classification
Fire prevention and protection measures

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 1. Introduction

What is fire?

 Fire is normally a result of fuel & oxygen coming

together in suitable proportion and with the
source of heat.
 Fire is an Oxidation reaction (oxygen +sub.)
because heated material combines with O2 and
then release heat.
 Exothermic Chemical Reaction – rapid
oxidation reaction

Fire cause deaths of persons due to 3

 flames &
 poisonous toxic gases (suffocation or lack of
O2 called Asphyxiation) 3
CONT…

More than 85% of fire in various types of plants

/buildings/hotels…etc are caused by electrical
spark or short circuiting.
Hazards due to electrical shock are limited to one
or two persons and one or two equipment's,
Fire kills several hundreds persons and several
equipment's and buildings.
Several preventive, protective and fighting aspect
and human safety aspect should be considered at :-
Design
Construction
Operations stages of the plant
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Fire & Combustion:

• Substance undergoes a chemical change (oxidation) by

combination with oxygen , its usually liberates certain
amount of heat, the process of oxidation accompanied by
evolution of heat is called Combustion.
• The combustion always occurs in the vapor phase; liquids
are volatized and solids are decomposed into vapor before
combustion.
• Fire is rapid combustion resulting in release of heat and
light of flame.
• Fire is an active, rapid, burning, (combustion, fast
oxidation , process accompanied by heat, light and
poisonous gases/ smokes/ Carbon dioxides gas due to
combustion.
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2. THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

•Flammability limits: Vapor-air mixtures will ignite and

burn only over a well-specified range of compositions.
•This specifies the percentage composition of the
flammable mixture
•Lower explosive/flammable limit (LEL): - the lowest
percentage concentration in air that a mixture of the
material, if ignited, will explode.
•The mixture will not burn when the composition is lower
than the lower flammable limit (LFL); the mixture is too
lean for combustion.
•Below the lower flammable limit the mixture is too lean
for combustion.
CONT…..

•Upper flammability/explosive limit (UEL) : -the highest

percentage concentration in air that a mixture of the
material , if ignited , will explode.
• The mixture is also not combustible when the
composition is too rich; that is, when it is above the
upper flammable limit (UFL).
•A mixture is flammable only when the composition is
between the LFL and the UFL. Commonly used units are
volume percent fuel (percentage of fuel plus air).
Above the UEL the mixture is too “rich” to explode.

Note: Both LEL and UEL defined as volume % of fuel in air

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 CONT…..

 Ignition temperature:
 The temperature at which combustion can take place.
 Flash point:
 The temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor
that if heat source is present, they will ignite momentary.
 Auto-Ignition temperature:
 Whether a liquid, solid or gaseous, the minimum
temperature required to ignite or self sustain combustion in
air.
 (in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition,
such as a flame or spark.)
 This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed for
combustion.
 The temperature at which a chemical will ignite decreases as the pressure or
oxygen concentration increases.
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 FLAMMABLE AND COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS

Depends on flash point and vapor pressure/boiling

point. Both are properties of materials.
 Vapor pressure: - The partial pressure of the vapor
produced at the surface of a liquid at given
temperature (i.e. 38 0C)
 Boiling point:
-Temp. at which vapor pressure = 1 atm.
• Flammable liquids :
Flash point < 38 0C
Vapor pressure <2.7 atm at 38 0C
• Combustible liquids
Flash point > 38 0C

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 Satyanarayana and Rao:

•Showed that the flash point temperatures for pure

materials correlate well with the boiling point of the
liquid. They were able to fit the flash point for over
1200 compounds with an error of less than 1% using
the equation

Tf, is the flash point temperature (K),

a, b, and c are constants provided in next Table (K), and
Tb, is the boiling point temperature of the material (K).
FLASH POINT OF A MIXTURE
Example 1: Methanol has a flash point of 54oF, and its vapor pressure
at this temperature is 62 mm Hg. What is the flash point of a solution
containing 75% methanol and 25% water by weight?
Solution
The mole fractions of each component are needed to apply Raoult's law.
Assuming a basis of 100 lb of solution, we can construct the following:

Raoult's law is used to compute the vapor pressure (Psat) pure

methanol, based on the partial pressure required to flash:
p = xpsat
psat = P/X = 62/0.63 = 98.4 mm Hg.
VAPOR MIXTURES

Frequently LFLs and UFLs for mixtures are needed.

These mixture limits are computed using the Le
Chatelier equation:

Where;
LFLi is the lower flammable limit for component i (in
volume %) of component i in fuel and air,
Yi is the mole fraction of component i on a
combustible basis, and
n is the number of combustible species.
VAPOR MIXTURES CONT…

Similarly,

where UFLi , is the upper flammable limit for component i (in

volume %) of component i in fuel and air.
EXAMPLE
What are the LFL and UFL of a gas mixture composed of 0.8%
hexane, 2.0% methane, and 0.5% ethylene by volume?
Given: LFL(Vol.%):- hexane, methane, ethylene is 1.2, 5.3 and 3.1
respectively
UFL(Vol%):- hexane, methane, ethylene is 7.5, 15 and 32.0
respectively
Solution:
The mole fractions on a fuel-only basis are calculated in the following
table. The LFL and UFL data are obtained from appendixes.
CONT.….
IGNITION OF COMBUSTIBLE GAS/VAPOR OCCUR
IN TWO WAYS

Energy for ignition by local

source at a point in a mixture
External source of ignition in
Bulk gas mixture is heated up its
ignition temperature
bulk mixture
 No external source of ignition
else the mixture reach auto-
ignition temp.
3.Basic Characteristics of fire
Combustion process in different state
If a combustible liquid or solid is heated it evolves
vapor flammable mixture further heating ignition
point =>combustion
Elements of fire ( The fire Tetrahedron)
The four condition necessary for a fire to start
1.Fuel
2.Oxygen(oxidizer)
3.Heat(energy) 19

4.Chemical chain reaction

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 O
X F
Y U
E
G L
E
N

Chemical
chain reaction
HEAT

COMPONENTS OF FIRE TETRAHEDRON 20

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 Elements of fire: the following elements are needed to start a
fire
1.Fuel :- the presence of combustible material
-wood -flammable liquid
- paper -flammable gas …
liquids: gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane
solids: plastics, wood dust, fibers, metal particles
gases: acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
Note: each kind of fuel has an energy or heat value per unit
weight that is called heat of combustion
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2.Heat (ignition source):- the presence of heating medium
- Spark -Hot surface
-Arc ….

3.oxidizer (oxygen):- usually from the atmospheric air, and

some chemical compound

Gases: Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine

Liquids: Hydrogen Peroxide, Nitric Acid, Per chloric Acid
Solids: Metal Peroxides, Ammonium Nitrite.
Experimental findings of fire:-

 It shows that fire is oxidation process which is

complicated mechanism and takes place in various
stages in the form of chemical chain reaction.
 Its continuous branched chemical chain rxn, in
which free radicals are continuously generated and
multiplied to propagate or spread the fire.
 Apart from the above three essential element,
continuous branched chain chemical chain reaction
is also very essential to start and propagate fire.
Note: chemical chain reaction in fire is activation of
single molecule cause many molecule to under go
activation.
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POTENTIAL SOURCE OF IGNITION
Flames (burners, furnaces, heaters)
Hot work ( welding, cutting, grinding)
Hot surface (hot process equipment, distressed
machinery)
Hot particles (soot from burners )
Friction or impact
Smoking
Lightning
Auto ignition
Self heating
Chemical energy
Electrical equipment /installations etc 24
APPEARANCE OF FIRE

Smoke – non combustible

Glowing vapor gas
Glowing fire –glowing solid material
Flue gas
Ash
Product of combustion
 Fire gases – off gases (CO2 , NOX ,)
Flame
Heat
Smoke
Explosion
Implosion
Collapse of tankage 25
Fire spread and growth:

 By direct burning
 By heat transfer - conduction
- convection
- Radiation
 By travel of burning material
Flash over :-
 Powerful behavior of fire
 Very fast propagate based on the conditions
 Mostly happened a fire occurred in an enclosed
system.
 High heat generation
 High temperature generation
 Material became flammable 26
 FLASHOVER
TEMPERATURE

DEVELOPMENT DECAY

GROWTH

HEAT CONSUMPTION(Burning material)

FIRE CLASSIFICATION

Classes of fires:
Fires are classified by the material that is
burning.
Fires are designated as:
Class “A”
Class “B”
Class “C”
Class “D”

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Cont..

1. Class “A”
Fire involves materials normally of organic nature
Ordinary combustible materials such as
:- wood, paper, cloth, …etc.
Class “A” fires leaves an ash residue and burn with a whitish to
grayish smoke.
2. Class “B”
Fire involves flammable liquids (liquefied solids), flammable
gases
E.g. oil, grease, gasoline, paint thinner, solvents, petroleum
products,…
The smoke is black due to the presence of large amount of
unburned carbon particles.
More difficult/hazardous than class “A” fire
Cont..

3. Class “C”
Fire involves energized electrical equipment's
Fire gives off bluish-white flashes from arcing
Normally once the equipment's are de-energized the fire
will cease or became a class “A” or class “B” fire.
E.g. Electrical appliance, circuit breaker , outlets
4. Class “D”
Metal Fire
Fire involves metals (like Mg, Na, Li, K …)
Metal fires that burn brightly and give off a white- powder
smoke and continue to burn in the absence of oxygen.
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FIRES ARE CLASSIFIED BY THE MATERIALS THAT IS
BURNING:-

Class A: fires involving solid material (organic

nature)
E.g. Wood, paper, cloth….
Class B: fires involving liquids or liquefiable
solids./ flammable gases
E.g. Oil, grease, gasoline, paint thinner,…
Class C: fires involving gases/ energized
electrical equipment E.g. electrical boards,
motors, windings… 31

Class D: fires involving metals (Mg, Na, Li, K)

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Fire protection and prevention

1.Passive prevention & protection

Comprises measures which are taken in order to prevent a fire
occurring & to limit its spread.
-Elimination of fires (leaks & spillages, sources of ign.)
-Emergency material transfer (pressure relief ,dumping)
-Fire spread limitation
-Fire protective insulation (paints)
-Storage tank layout
-Fire proof doors, fire wall, wired glass window,
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2.Active protections (comprises fixed and auth. fire
fighting)
 This can be achieved by adopting either of the
following means:-
Starvation
smothering,
Cooling
Interruption of chemical chain reaction
 Removal of heat , oxygen or fuel , or interruption of the
chemical chain reaction will stop a fire.
O
X

er
F starving
ly/ O2
Y
rri
pp g
ba U
su itin

G E
Lim

E L

N
Chemical
chain
reaction
HEAT
Interruption of
cooling
chemical Rxn
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PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
(ACTIVE PROTECTION )

Fire extinguishers :- removal of heat, oxygen or

fuel or interruption of the chemical chain reaction
will stop a fire
Heat removal : - certain extinguishing agents cool
the fuel below its ignition temperature.
Water is the primary example of an agent (because
of its cheap and effective ) that cools a fire.
Used for Class “A”.

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PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
(ACTIVE PROTECTION )

 Removal of oxygen : - some agents establish a

barrier between the fuel and the air , thereby
depriving(guarding) the fire of oxygen.
 Foam on an oil fire acts this manner
 This effect may also be considered as removing
the fuel from the fire by isolating the fuel ;
however the heat remain with the fuel.
 Portable fire extinguishers
(active protection )

Dilution of oxygen : - other agents dilute the air to reduce the concentration of
oxygen to below 15.0 %
 Below this concentration , fire suffocate due to lack of oxygen .
 Oxygen concentration below 19.5% adverse effect to humans, so great care
must be exercised to prevent the fir fighter from becoming a casualty
 Also the lack of oxygen causes the smoke to be enriched by partially oxidized
substance which may be highly toxic and flammable.
 The subsequent addition of oxygen may then cause an explosion called “back
drafting”.
Interruption of the chemical chain reaction
 Dry chemical agents and halon are thought to interrupt the chemical chain
reaction occurring at the surface of the fuel.

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Fire extinguishing agents:

 Fire extinguishing agents are classified according to the

type of fire on which they are effective.
 Agents may be classified as “A”, “B”, “C”, or “D” or
combination of types. “ABC”, “BC” and “AB” are common
fire extinguisher designations.
1. Water (class “A” agent):-
 Remove heat, best on Class A fires,
 Very bad for Class B fires as it spreads the fuel and the
flame
 Very bad for Class C fires as it enhance to conducts
electricity
 Disastrous on Class D fire, may cause an explosion.
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2. Carbon dioxide (class “BC” Agent)
Displace oxygen reducing its conc. to below the
level which is capable of supporting combustion.
Good for Class “B” and “C” fires.
Not good for Class “A” fires
Hazardous to humans.
3. Dry chemicals
Ordinary dry chemical powder (Class “BC” agent)
Siliconized Sodium Bicarbonates
Airborne powder interrupts the chemical chain
reaction.
Good for Class “B” and “C” fires.

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4. Multipurpose dry chemical powder(Class
“ABC” Agents
Siliconized ammonium phosphate.
Performs as above, plus the powder melts when
in contact a hot surface , sealing the oxygen away
from the fuel.
Good for Class “B” and Class “C” fires
Fair for class “A” fires.
5. Foam (Class “AB” agent):-
Water based detergent floats on the surface of burning liquids,
excluding oxygen from the fuel.
Excellent cooling qualities, same as water.
Not suitable for class “C” fire
6. Dry powder (Class “D” Agent):-
Only for Class “D”, metal fires.
Low velocity, sodium bicarbonate or sand.
Attempts to smother fire, however, some
metal fires will continue to burn with no
apparent source of oxygen.

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7. PKP or purple K powder (Class “BCD” agent):-

• Potassium bicarbonate dyed purple to distinguish it from other

agents.
• Primarily for Class “D” fires, smothering
• It will work on Class “B” and “C” fires
as well (interrupting)
As a conclusion: -
By knowing the factors which need to be present to allow a fire to
start & sustain can be avoiding by removing one of the
components of fire and the fire should be protected before it
reaches the development stage.
For the purpose of determining the most desirable and effective
type of extinguishing agent, fire classification should be well
known.
The optimum solution to the fire protection problem is normally a
combination of passive and active measures
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 Summery of Fire classification and Suitable type of
fire extinguishers

SUITABLE TYPE OF EXTINGUISHER

TYPE OF FIRE MATERIAL INVOLVED

Ordinary combustibles e.g. wood, paper, Water, soda acid

A rubber, plastics etc.

Flammable liquids, paints, varnishes, Foam, carbon dioxide, dry chemical

grease, etc powder

B Gaseous substances including liquefied Carbon dioxide, dry chemical

gases e.g. LPG, hydrogen powder, sand

Energized Electrical fires Carbon dioxide and dry chemical

C powders

D Reactive chemicals like carbides, Sand, dry chemical powders

peroxides and active metals like sodium,
potassium, calcium, titanium etc
Fire Detection & Alarm Systems
Heat detectors:
Temperature is the primary indicator of fire
Smoke detectors:
Smoke is primary fire indictor
Faster than heat detectors
There are two kind of smoke detectors
 Ionization:- contain radioactive materials that “charges” smoke particles
and sense the electrical potential
 Photo-electricity:- smoke disrupt a beam of light, similarly to an
interlock.
Flame detectors:
Monitors the wavelength of light for those most common to fire
Susceptible to false reading
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 Gas sensors:
Use the presence of combustion gases as the primary fire
indicator.

Alarm system:
• Alarm bell
• Horn and strobe alarm
• Speaker alarm

Sprinkler systems:
wet- pipe sprinkler system:-
system water is present in all times
• Water passes immediately as soon as a sprinkler head is open-
end
• Very quick
• Susceptible to freezing, leaking, and other issues

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•Dry-pipe system:-

• piper do not contain water

• They may be pressurized with air or nitrogen.
• When sprinkler head is opened, pressure is lost,
this loss of pressure opens a valve to release water
into the system
• Slower than wet-pipe system
•Sprinkler head:
• May open due to presence of
• Heat:- melt a “stop” in the head
• Smoke, flame, gas sensor detection,

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 Quiz 2

1. What are the major classification fire

2. Explain the basic elements of fire
 End of chapter four
Thank you for your attention!!!