FATIGUE:

Salient Features & Overview Points:

Damage of material due to varying load/fluctuating load
(of magnitude usually less than the yield stress)
ultimately leading to failure is termed as fatigue of
material (or fatigue failure).

Carburizing and nitriding introduce strong surface

layers and increase the resistance to crack initiation at the
surface.

On the other hand decarburization produces a soft

surface layer that lowers the fatigue resistance. A fine grain
size improves the fatigue resistance.
It is estimated that fatigue accounts for ~90% of all
service failures due to mechanical causes. Corrosion being
the other major cause of failures.

Usually, fatigue failures occur after considerable time of

service.

The surface which has undergone fatigue fracture

appears brittle without gross deformation at fracture (in
the macroscale).
Fatigue failure is usually initiated at a site of stress
concentration.

The term fatigue is borrowed from human reaction of

‘tiredness’ due to repetitive work!

Fatigue testing is often conducted in bending or torsion

mode. Bending tests are easy to conduct. In pipes fatigue
tests may be done by internal pressurization with a fluid.
It is more prominent in I.C. Engines, air craft,
compressors, pumps, rotating shaft, connecting rod etc.

Fatigue failure starts from internal cracks, holes or

cavities. The majority of failures of such components in
service are due to fatigue.

Then the crack reaches the surface producing fracture of

components.

In case of fatigue the stresses may be tensile or

compressive and values may range from minimum to
maximum.
If the stress has an origin in thermal cycling, then the
fatigue is called thermal fatigue.
Factors affecting fatigue failure:
Three factors play an important role in fatigue failure:
(i) value of tensile stress (maximum),
(ii) magnitude of variation in stress, (iii) number of cycles.

Geometrical and microstructural aspects also play an

important role in determining fatigue life (and failure).
Stress concentrators from both these sources have a
deleterious effect.

Residual stress can also play a role. A corrosive

environment can have a deleterious interplay with fatigue.
 Sufficiently high maximum tensile stress

Factors necessary to
cause fatigue failure
Large variation/fluctuation in stress

Sufficiently large number of stress cycles

Engineering fatigue data is usually plotted as a S-N
curve. Here S is the stress and N is the number of cycles to
failure (usually fracture).

As obvious, if the magnitude of Stress increases the

fatigue life decreases.

The yield strength of M.S is 220MN m-2, but it will fail

at a stress of 140MN m-2. The fatigue behavior of a
material is understood from the results of a fatigue test.
Low cycle fatigue (N < 104 or 105 cycles) tests are
conducted in controlled cycles of elastic + plastic strain.

Broadly two kinds of S-N curves can be differentiated for

two classes of materials.

(1) Those where a stress below a threshold value gives a

‘very long’ life (this stress value is called the Fatigue Limit /
Endurance limit). Steel and Ti come under this category.

(2) Those where a decrease in stress, increases the fatigue

life of the component, but no distinct fatigue life is
observed. Al, Mg, Cu come under this category.
From a application point of view having a sharp fatigue
limit is useful (as keeping service stress below this will
help with long life (i.e. large number of cycles) for the
component).

S-N curve in the high cycle region can be described by

the Basquin equation: where, a is the stress amplitude, p
& C empirical constants. 

p
N C
 

a
The S-N curve is usually determined using 8-12
specimens. Starting with a stress of two-thirds of the static
tensile strength of the material the stress is lowered till
specimens do not fail in about 107 cycles.

Fatigue fracture occurs by crack propagation. Good

design plays an important role in increasing the fatigue
life. Sharp corners should be avoided in design, polishing
the surface of the component (good finish).
 Fatigue limit = Endurance limit
Fatigue limit
300 Stress below Fatigue
Mild steel
limit give ‘infinite life’

No fatigue limit  fatigue strength

200
is specified for and arbitrary
number of cycles (~ 108 cycles)
Aluminium alloy
100
Note that number of cycles is in log scale  Steel, Ti show fatigue limit
 Al, Mg, Cu show no fatigue limit
Number of cycles to failure (N) → (Might show a limit, but prohibitive to conduct such long time
tests!)
0
Mechanism of fatigue failure:
Failure of material under fluctuating stresses at a stress
magnitude which is lower than the ultimate tensile
strength of the material called fatigue failure.

A fatigue failure always starts as a small crack and grows

in size under repeated loading of the stress.

It is generally occurs in turbines, aircraft etc.

It particularly occurs without any warning.

Fatigue result is brittle appearing fracture, without any
deformation at the fracture.
Stages of fatigue failure are
(a) Crack nucleation.
(b) Crack growth
(c) Fracture
(a)Crack nucleation: Fatigue failure begins with the
formation of a small crack. This is generally found on
external surface of the surface.

(b)Crack growth: The crack form on external surface is

then developed slowly into the material in the direction
roughly perpendicular to the main tensile axis. That results
in weakening the strength of material.

(c)Fracture: A fatigue crack advances a small amount

during each stress cycle and each incremental of advance
is shown on fracture surface as a multiple ripple line.
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