Toronto Metropolitan University,

The Chang School of Continuing Education

Biology I (CBLG 143)

Lecture # 1:
Introduction
The Chemical Basis of Life: Water and Carbon

Instructor: Juana Gonzalez-Santos, PhD

E-mail: jgonzalez@ryerson.ca
 Lecture Outline
• The Scientific Method
• Properties of Life
• Classification of living organisms
• Life’s Hierarchy of Organization
• The Chemical Level of Organization
• The Structure of Atoms
• Types of Chemical bonds
• The Molecular Level of Organization
• Important Inorganic Compounds
• Water
• Organic Compounds – The Importance of Carbon
Biology
• The scientific study of life
• Biologists ask questions such as:
• How does a single cell develop into an organism?
• How does the human brainwork?
• How do living things interact in communities?
 What is Science?

• Biology is a branch of science

• Science: organized way of using evidence to

learn about the natural world
• Goals:
– Investigate and understand natural world to explain
events.
– Use evidence to make useful predictions
How is Biology studied?

The Scientific
Method:
• A systematic
approach use
by scientists to
gain
understanding
of the natural
world
 Science Is Both a Body of Knowledge
and a Process
• Science is the study of the natural world
• Science is two things:
1. Knowledge about the natural world
2. The process used to acquire knowledge
• Called the scientific method
The Process of Science
Science is…
• a body of knowledge
• E.g., biology, the study of living
organisms
• the discovery of something
new and unknown
Science is NOT…
• recalling specific facts about
the world.
• memorizing what is already
known.

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The Scientific Method, Which Forms a Framework for
Scientific Research
 The Scientific Method
1. Make careful observations
2. Ask a question about the observation
- reasonable
- consistent with existing knowledge
3. Develop a testable hypothesis as a possible answer to experiment
your question. Hypothesis …
- is a possible explanation for an observation/ educated
guess
- should be a statement, not a question
- should be testable (possible to evaluate)
• Falsifiable: can be false (refute) or can be supported
- can never be proved to be true
- Inductive reasoning
4. Provide a prediction and then an experiment
with two groups, control and experimental, to
determine whether the hypothesis is supported
5. Test the prediction with a controlled
- controlled group and experimental group
- Deductive reasoning
6. Draw a conclusion based on the results of
the experiment
- conclusion = interpretation of the data
(graphs, tables)
- Statistical significance of the data (results
are not due to chance alone)
Scientists use Two Types of Reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning
• makes generalizations based on observations
about the world
• State Hypothesis
For example,
• Observation: “Every winter in the past was
colder than the preceding summer.”
• Generalization: “Winter will always be colder
than summer”
2. Deductive Reasoning
• flows from general premises to predicted
specific results.
• Are often in the form of “if…then”
statements
• (Test Hypothesis)
Hypothesis vs Theory
• A scientific theory is
• much broader in scope than a hypothesis and
• supported by a large and usually growing body of evidence.
• For a hypothesis to become a theory it must
• be broad
• be extensively tested
• be supported over time by different, independent lines of research
• explain a broad range of facts
• have a high degree of reliability
• Theories may be refuted in the future
Everyday use of “theory”
• Untested ideas based on little information
Theories
• Three theories form the framework for modern
biological science:
• The cell theory
• What are organisms made of?
• The theory of evolution by natural selection
• Where do organisms come from?
• The Germ theory of disease
• What causes disease?
 Louis Pasteur’s Experiment

• A hypothesis is a testable statement that explains something

observed
• A prediction is measurable or observable result that must be
correct if a hypothesis is valid
• Louis Pasteur’s hypothesis:
• Cells arise from cells
• Cells do not arise by spontaneous generation
 Do cells arise spontaneously or from other cells?
Cells arise spontaneously from nonliving materials.
Cells are produced only when preexisting cells grow and divide.

Pasteur experiment with straight-necked flask: Pasteur experiment with swan-necked flask:

1. Place nutrient broth in 1. Place nutrient broth in

straight-necked flask. swan-necked flask.

Cells Cells 2. Boil to sterilize the

flask (killing any living
2. Boil to sterilize the flask cells that were in the
(killing any living cells that broth).
were in the broth).
Condensation settles
No cells Cells No cells in neck
Cells
3. Preexisting cells 3. Preexisting
enter flask from air. cells from air
are trapped in
swan neck.

Cells will appear in broth. Cells will appear in broth.

Cells will appear in broth. Cells will not appear in broth.

Spontaneous
generation
Both hypotheses hypothesis
Cells supported No cells rejected

Cells arise from preexisting cells, not spontaneously from nonliving material.
 • Clinical trials consist of several experimental groups that receive different
dosages of the drug and a control group that receives a placebo, a substance
made to look like the drug being tested
• A double-blind study occurs when neither researchers nor participants know
which group is receiving the treatment
• Epidemiological studies look for patterns that occur in large populations

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Practice Question

“Colds are generated by disturbances in

psychic energy” is a testable statement.

• True
• False
Practice Question

Which statement is a scientific

hypothesis?
a) Jazz is better music than rap.
b) Garden fairies make tomatoes grow better.
c) Hunting species to extinction is wrong.
d) Increasing the amount of protein in a cow’s
diet increases milk yield.
Practice Question

Researchers testing new drugs usually give the drug to

one group of people and give placebos, "sugar pills," to
another group. The group receiving the placebo ________.

a) is needed so that the test will be repeated enough times

b) is the control group
c) constitutes the experimental group
d) is a backup in case some of the people getting the drug
drop out of the test
 Practice Question
Which one of the following statements regarding scientific theory
is FALSE?
a) A scientific theory is a speculation as to the possible outcome of an
experiment.
b) A hypothesis that has been repeatedly tested over time, and found to
be true, usually becomes a scientific theory.
c) A scientific theory explains scientific facts with a high degree of
reliability.
d) As new information is gained over time, scientific theories can be
modified.
e) The highest status that a hypothesis can achieve is becoming a
scientific theory.
 Critical Thinking to Evaluate Scientific
Claims
• Critical-thinking skills are used to analyze information and
make informed decisions
• It is everyone’s responsibility to ask questions, evaluate the
data, and make informed decisions
• Scientists publish their work in peer-review journals
• Not all information found on the WEB is relevant, accurate,
or even true
• Everyone should remain skeptical and determine the source
of information
Biology
• Biology is the study of life
• But what does it mean to be alive?
Basic Characteristics of All Living Things

1. Contain nucleic acid, lipids, proteins, and

carbohydrates
2. Are composed of cells
3. Grow and reproduce
4. Respond to their environment
5. Use energy and raw materials (metabolism:
anabolism + catabolism)
6. Maintain homeostasis
7. Evolve and have adaptive traits
 Homeostasis
• The relatively constant and self-correcting internal
environment of living organisms despite changes in the
surroundings
• Dynamic state
• Depends on communication within the body
• Nervous and endocrine systems primary means of
communication
• All body systems working together to maintain a stable
internal environment, respond to external and internal
changes to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
• Illness can result if homeostasis fails
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

1. Receptor
• Monitors the environment
• Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
• Sends information to control center
2. Control center (in the brain)
• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
3. Effector
• Provides a means for response to the stimulus (muscle or gland)
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

3 Input: Control
Information center 4 Output:
sent along Information sent
afferent along efferent
pathway to pathway to

Receptor (sensor) Effector

2 Change
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
Imb effector feeds
1 Stimulus: ala
Produces nc back to
e influence
change
in variable magnitude of
stimulus and
Variable (in homeostasis) returns variable
to homeostasis
Imb
ala
n ce

Figure 1.4
 Negative Feedback
Mechanisms
• Most common way that homeostasis is maintained in
the body
• In negative feedback systems the response of the
effector negates or opposes the stimulus (shuts off the
original stimulus)
• Example: Regulation of room temperature
 Practice Question

Living systems differ from nonliving systems

in that ….
a) living systems are composed largely of unusual
elements.
b) living systems are composed largely of elements with
large (high) atomic numbers.
c) living systems contain large percentages (greater than
10%) of nine elements.
d) living systems combine simple elements in unique
combinations.
 Did You Get It?
 When we say that the body demonstrates
homeostasis, do we mean that conditions in
the body are unchanging? Explain your
answer.

 When we begin to become dehydrated, we

usually get thirsty, which causes us to drink
liquids. Is the thirst sensation part of a
negative or a positive feedback control
system? Defend your choice.
 Lecture Outline

• Properties of Life
• The Scientific Method
• Classification of living organisms
• Life’s Hierarchy of Organization
• Ecosystems
• Energy Energy flow through ecosystems
• Biogeochemical cycles
• Classification of parasites
• The Disease triangle
 Diversity of Life Forms
How can we group organisms?
• What are the differences and similarities among the
following groups of organisms?
– A sunflower (plant)
– A chimpanzee (animal)
– A mushroom (fungi)

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 Grouping Species
• Taxonomy the branch of biology that
– names species and
– classifies species into a hierarchy of broader groups
– The taxonomic system was first established by Carolus Linnaeus
(1707–1778) for naming plants and animals and grouping similar
organisms together.
• The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are …
- domain,
- kingdom,
- phylum (Division for plants),
- class,
- order,
- family,
- genus, and
The diversity of life can be arranged into three
domains

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Kingdoms of domain Eukarya:
 Biosphere Ecosystem
Florida
Florida Everglades

Community
All organisms in this
wetland ecosystem

Population
All alligators living
in the wetlands

Organism Life Can Be Studied at

different Levels of
an American alligator

Nerve
Spinal
cord
Organ system
Nervous system
Biological Organization

Brain Organ
Brain

Tissue
Nervous tissue

Atom
Cell Nucleus
Nerve cell
Organelle Molecule
Nucleus DNA
 Levels of Structural Organization

 Chemical Level: atoms (e.g. carbon) combine to form

molecules (e.g. glucose)
 Cellular level:
 Smallest living units in organisms
 Cells contain organelles, each with a function

 Tissue level: different groups of cells that perform a

function
 Organ Level: Different types of tissues that perform a
common function
 Organ system: consists of different organs that work
closely together
 Organismal Level: All systems working together (e.g.
humans)
Levels of Organization of
Living Organisms
Earth as an Ecosystem
• Ecology
• The study of interactions between organisms and between organisms and
the environment
• Ecology is a science
• term means “the study of the household”
• Earth as an ecosystem
• No source of new materials
• Many materials cycle between organisms and between living and nonliving components
• Energy comes from the sun
• Captured by green plants and transferred from organism to organism
 What is an Ecosystem?
• Ecosystems comprise organisms and their nonliving environment, and they
are dependent on inflows and outflows of matter and energy.
• Biotic – living components
▪ Interactions with other species
▪ Predation
▪ Competition

• Abiotic – nonliving (physical and chemical)

components
▪ Temperature
▪ Water
▪ Biogeochemical cycles
▪ Energy flow
▪ Sunlight
▪ Wind
▪ Rocks and soil
Practice Question

Which one of the following is a kingdom?

A) Eukarya
B) Primates
C) Archaea
D) Animalia
E) Bacteria

Iconfinder.com
Practice Question
You are classifying an organism and trying to determine to which
domain it belongs. The organism is unicellular and was isolated from a
very unusual environment. This organism probably belongs in which
domain?
A) Eukarya
B) Archaea
C) Bacteria
D) None of the domains above is correct.

Iconfinder.com
 Practice Question

Based on the figure above, which group of organisms is

most closely related to members of the animal kingdom?
A) Protista C) Plantae. E) Archaea
B) Fungi Iconfinder.com
 Practice Question

• Which of the following contains the most species of living

things?
a) Biosphere
b) Niche
c) Ecosystem
d) Community

Iconfinder.com
The Chemical Level of
Organization
Basic Atomic Structure
• Atoms are composed of
• Protons—positively charged particles
• Neutrons—neutral particles
• Electrons—negatively charged particles
• Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus
• Electrons are found in orbitals surrounding the
nucleus
Electron Arrangement around the Nucleus

• Electrons move around atomic nuclei in specific regions

called orbitals
• Each orbital can hold up to two electrons
• Orbitals are grouped into levels called electron shells
• Electron shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on
• Numbers indicate their relative distance from the nucleus
• Smaller numbers are closer to the nucleus
• Each electron shell contains a specific number of orbitals
• An electron shell comprising a single orbital can hold up to two
electrons
• A shell with four orbitals can contain up to eight electrons
• The electrons of an atom fill the innermost shells first,
then fill the outer shells
 (a) Diagrams of atoms
Electron

Parts of an Atom Proton

Nucleus
Neutron

Hydrogen
Carbon

(b) Most of an atom’s volume is empty space.

If an atom occupied the same

volume as this stadium, the nucleus
would be about the size of a pea
Elements—The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution

• The atomic number

• Every different atom has a characteristic number of
protons in the nucleus
• Atoms with the same atomic number
• Have the same chemical properties
• Belong to the same element
• Isotopes are
• Forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons
• The mass number is
• The number of protons  neutrons of the most common
isotope
A Portion of the Periodic Table

Mass number
(number of protons
+ neutrons)

Atomic number
(number of protons)
The Structure of Atoms Found in Organisms

Hydrogen The highlighted Helium

Electron shell elements are the most
abundant elements Number of unpaired
Nucleus found in organisms electrons = valence

Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

Valence = 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
The Molecular Level
of Organization
Chemical Bonding
• Unfilled electron orbitals allow formation of chemical
bonds
• Atoms
• Are most stable when each electron orbital is filled
• Molecules and Compounds
• Are substances held together by covalent bonds
Types of Chemical Bonds
• Covalent bonds
• Polar covalent bonds
• Non-polar Covalent bonds
• Ionic bonds
• Hydrogen bonds
• Van der Waals forces
 Covalent Bond
• Formed by atoms that share a pair of electrons

Hydrogen atoms each H2 molecule has

have one unpaired two shared
electron electrons

• Hydrogen atoms form single bonds H―H

• Oxygen atoms form two bonds O=O
• Nitrogen atoms form three bonds N≡N
• Carbon atoms form four bonds O=C=O
Covalent Bonds
• Electrons are not always shared equally
• An atom in a molecule with a high
electronegativity
• Holds electrons more tightly—has a partial negative
charge (–)
• The other atom will have a partial positive charge
()
 Electron Sharing and Bond Polarity

• Differences in electronegativity dictate how electrons are

distributed in covalent bonds
• Nonpolar covalent bond (a) Nonpolar covalent bond in
• Electrons are evenly shared hydrogen molecule
• between two atoms
Electrons are halfw
• The bond is symmetrical
the two atoms, sha

(b) Polar covalent bonds in

• Polar covalent bond
water molecule
• Electrons are asymmetrically
shared Electrons are not
(O is more electro
H), so partial cha
the O and H atom
Non-Polar Covalent
Bond
• Covalent chemical bond
in which 2 electrons are
shared equally
between 2 atoms.

• Molecules made of one

element usually have
nonpolar covalent bonds

• e.g.,H2, O2, Cl2, N2

Polar Covalent Bond
• Electrons are unequally shared in polar covalent
bonds
• molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly
positive end
• water is an important polar molecule

Water is a polar molecule

because oxygen is more
electronegative (the
tendency of an atom to
attract electrons) than
hydrogen, and therefore
electrons are pulled closer to
oxygen.
Ionic Bonds
• Ionic bond
• Form when electrons are completely transferred from
one atom to another
• The resulting attraction between oppositely charged ions
• Ion (cation or anion)
• An atom or molecule that carries a charge
• Cation
• An atom that loses an electron and becomes positively
charged
• Anion
• An atom that gains an electron and becomes negatively
charged
Ion Formation and Ionic Bonding

(a) A sodium ion being formed (c) Table salt (NaCl) is a crystal composed
of two ions.
Cl–
Loss of electron
Cation formation Na+
Sodium ion
has positive
charge

(b) A chloride ion

being formed

Gain of electron
Anion formation
Chloride ion
has negative
charge
Ion Formation and
Ionic Bonding
 Hydrogen Bonds (Water, Ammonia)
• A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between the
hydrogen attached to an electronegative atom of one
molecule and an electronegative atom of a different
molecule.
• Electronegative atoms: O, N, F
Van der Waals interactions

• weak, nonspecific attractions between the nucleus of any

atom and the electrons of nearby atoms
• Even molecules with nonpolar covalent bonds can have partially
negative and positive regions.
• Because electrons are constantly in motion, there can be
periods when they accumulate by chance in one area of a
molecule.
• This created ever-changing regions of negative and positive
charge within a molecule.
• Molecules or atoms in close proximity can be attracted by these
fleeting charge differences, creating van der Waals interactions.
 Strength and Type of Chemical Bonds and Interactions

STRONG Covalent bonds (share electrons)

e.g., methane, CH4

Ionic bonds (opposite charges attract)

e.g., sodium chloride, Na+Cl-

Hydrogen bonds (attraction of H to O or N or F)

e.g., between H2O molecules

Van der Waals forces (“like dissolves like”)

e.g., between lipid molecules, nonpolar
amino acids

WEAK

While individual bonds (ionic, hydrogen, van der Waals) are weak,
collectively they have strength.
 Practice Question

Based on the periodic table shown here, which

elements will most likely form an ionic bond?
a) Na and Cl
b) Li and F
c) C and O
d) N and O
e) Si and Cl
 Practice Question

Based on the periodic table shown here, which elements will

most likely form a polar
covalent bond?

a) Na and Cl
b) C and O
c) N and O
d) Si and Cl
e) H and H
 Practice Question

Based on the periodic table shown here, which

elements will most likely form a covalent bond?

• Na and Cl
• C and O
• N and O
• Si and Cl
• H and H
 Practice Question

What do elements with atomic numbers 6, 14,

and 22 have in common?
a) same number of electrons
b) same atomic mass
c) same valence
d) will form the same number of bonds
 Practice Question

Water is a polar molecule because of the

presence of ___________ bonds.
a) ionic
b) covalent
c) polar covalent
d) hydrogen
e) More than one of the above options is correct.
 Practice Question

The force of the chemical bond (the

attraction between the different elements)

a) is an electrical attraction.(Best answer)

b) is a unique chemical attraction.
c) results from the sharing of electrons.
d) results from atoms filling their outermost valence shell.
Important Inorganic Compounds

• Water
• Most abundant inorganic compounds
• unique due to its structure
• Small size
• Bent shape
• Highly polar covalent bonds
• Overall polarity
• Vital properties
• High heat capacity
• Solvent properties
• Chemical reactivity
• Cushioning
Why Is Water Such an Efficient Solvent?

• Life is based on water because water is a great solvent

• The covalent bonds in water are polar, because oxygen
has a greater electronegativity than hydrogen
• Oxygen has a partial negative charge (–)
• Hydrogen has a partial positive charge ()
• Hydrogen bonds
• Are the weak electrical attractions between the partially
negative oxygen of one water molecule
• And the partially positive hydrogen of a different water
molecule
• They can also form between a water molecule and any
other polar molecule
Solution = solvent + solute(s)
(solute dissolves in solvent)

Solute: substance that dissolves in a liquid (solvent)

Any solute having a number of polar bonds and/or ionized groups will
dissolve in water.
Solutes that have covalent bonds that are electrically neutral (nonpolar)
will not dissolve in water

Solvent: liquid in which substances (solutes) are dissolved.

Water is the most abundant solvent in the body
Molecules and Water
• Hydrophilic: “water loving”
• hydro = water, philos = loving
• reacts with water

• Hydrophobic: “water fearing”

• phobos = fear
• does not react with water

• Amphipathic: Solutes that have a polar or ionized

group at one end and nonpolar groups at the other
Polar Molecules and Ions Dissolve Readily in Water

• Hydrophilic atoms and

molecules Salt in absence of water
• Are ions and polar
molecules that stay in
solution
• They stay in solution
because of their interactions
with water’s partial charges
• Hydrogen bonding makes
it possible for almost any
charged or polar molecule Salt dissolved in water
to dissolve in water
 Nonpolar Molecules Do Not Dissolve in Water

• Hydrophobic
molecules
• Are uncharged and
nonpolar
compounds
• They do not
dissolve in water
 Correlation of Water’s Structure and Properties

• Water also has several remarkable properties, largely due to its

ability to form hydrogen bonds, including being
• Cohesive
• Adhesive
• Denser as a solid than a liquid
• Able to absorb large amounts of energy
The Properties of Water
• Cohesion
• Binding between like molecules A meniscus forms where water meets
a solid surface,
• Binding to itself as a result of these two forces
Adhesion: Wate
• Results in high surface tension molecules that
adhere to the
• Adhesion glass pull upwar
at the perimeter.

• Binding between unlike molecules

• Binding to plastic or epithelial layers Cohesion: Wate
molecules at the
surface form hy
bonds with near
water molecules
resist the upwar
of adhesion.

Becase of surface
tension, light
objects do not
fall through the
water’s surface
 molecules at the
surface form hydrogen
bonds with nearby

Surface Tension
water molecules and
resist the upward pull
of adhesion.

• Water molecules want to cling to each

other (cohesion).
• At the surface, however, there are fewer
water molecules to cling to since there is
air above (thus, no water molecules).
• This results in a stronger bond between Water has high surface tension
those molecules that actually do come in
contact with one another, and a layer of
strongly bonded water (see diagram). This Because of surface
surface layer (held together by surface tension, light
tension) creates a considerable barrier objects do not
fall through the
between the atmosphere and the water. water’s surface
• Insects walking on water
• Floating a needle
• Why bubbles are round
 The Properties of Water
• Denser as a solid than a liquid
• Water expands as it changes from a liquid to a solid
• This is why ice floats!

(c) Liquid water is denser

(a) In ice, water molecules (b) In liquid water, no than ice. As a result,
form a crystal lattice. crystal lattice forms. ice floats.
The Properties of Water
• Able to absorb large amounts of energy
• Water has an extraordinarily large capacity for absorbing
heat
• High specific heat
• High heat of vaporization
Important Inorganic Compounds

• Salts
• Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
• Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
Important Inorganic Compounds

• Acids
• Can release detectable hydrogen ions
• Bases
• Proton acceptors
• Neutralization reaction
• Acids and bases react to form water and a salt
Acid–Base Reactions and pH
• Proton [hydrogen ion (H)] concentration is the basis
of the pH scale
• pH expresses proton concentration in a solution
• The pH of pure water is 7
• Acids have a pH of less than 7
• Bases have a pH of greater than 7
• In acid–base reactions
• A proton donor (acid) transfers a proton to
• A proton acceptor (base)
• Neutralization reaction
• Acids and bases react to form water and a salt
 pH

• Proton [hydrogen ion (H)]

concentration is the basis of
the pH scale
• pH expresses proton
concentration in a solution
• The pH of pure water is 7
• Acids have a pH of less
than 7
• Bases have a pH of greater
than 7
 The pH Scale and Buffers

• The pH scale is logarithmic:

pH = −log [H]
• Greater H concentration  lower pH  more acidic
• Lower H concentration  higher pH  more basic/alkaline
• Buffers are compounds that minimize changes in pH
Buffers Minimize Changes of pH
• the pH of body fluids needs to be maintained within narrow
range, or else health suffers

• Blood pH~ 7.35 to 7.45

• Buffers – compounds used to maintain a constant pH within a system

• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) act as one of body’s
most important buffer pairs

(CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3- )

 Blood pH

• Excess H+ ions (low pH): Acidosis (pH ~ 7.2)

• damages cells and tissues
• alters proteins
• interferes with normal physiological functions

• Excess OH— ions (high pH): Alkalosis (pH > 7.45)

- Excess vomiting results in loss of gastric acid
 Practice Question

The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid and bicarbonate acts as a pH

regulator in our blood. As the blood pH begins to rise, what will happen?
H2CO3 ↔ HCO3– + H+
Carbonic acid Bicarbonate ion Hydrogen ion

a) reaction proceeds to the right; more carbonic acid

dissociates
b) reaction proceeds to the right; more carbonic acid
forms
c) reaction proceeds to the left; more carbonic acid
dissociates
d) reaction proceeds to the left; more carbonic acid forms
 Practice Question

Which one of the following hypothetical changes in a

water molecule would tend to make it more polar?

a) It is a linear molecule, as in H-O-H.

b) Adjacent water molecules form covalent bonds with
each other.
c) The electronegativity values for O and H are similar.
d) Each molecule could form five hydrogen bonds with
another.
e) More than one of the above would make water more
polar.
 Practice Question

Water has an unusually high specific heat. This is directly related

to which one of the following?

a) At its boiling point, water changes from liquid to vapor.

b) More heat is required to raise the temperature of water.
c) Ice floats in liquid water.
d) Salt water freezes at a lower temperature than pure water.
e) Floating ice can insulate bodies of water.
 Practice Question
Which of the following explains what is happening when sodium
chloride dissolves in water?
a) More hydrogen bonds are forming between water
molecules.
b) Sodium and chloride atoms are separating from one
another.
c) Hydration shells are forming around the sodium and
chloride ions.
d) Covalent bonds are breaking and re-forming.
e) Nonpolar substances are mixing with polar
substances.
 Practice Question
Surfactants reduce surface tension of a liquid. Which of the
following most accurately describes them?

a) Anti-fog surfactant treatment of glass surfaces changes

water droplets to a thin film.
b) Anti-fog surfactant treatment increases condensation of
water vapor to form a film on a glass surface.
c) Small polar molecules like ammonia are better surfactants
than amphipathic molecules like detergents.
d) Hydrophobic molecules like oils are better surfactants than
amphipathic molecules like detergents.
e) Surfactant treatment in the lungs of premature infants
increases the thickness of the water layer lining the lung
chambers.
 Practice Question
Predict how life on earth would be different if
water were less polar. Which one of the following
would result if organisms lived in and consisted of
a less polar medium than water?
a) Heavier insects than water striders would be able to
walk on the surface of a pond.
b) Increased cohesion would contribute to increased
upward water transport in plants.
c) The water temperature of ponds and pools would
increase more slowly when in sunlight.
d) Sweating would be a less effective means of keeping
cool.
e) More salts would go into the solution in blood and body
fluids.
 Practice Question
In a lake, mineral nutrients accumulate at the bottom while dissolved oxygen
is greater near the surface. These nutrients can be mixed during water
turnover that occurs with annual temperature changes. Which one of the
following properties of water explains this turnover?
a) Individual water molecules move less vigorously as water
cools.
b) Hydrogen bonds among water molecules form a crystal
lattice at 0°C.
c) The density of water is greatest at 4°C.
d) Water changes from liquid to solid at 0°C.
e) The distance between water molecules is greater in ice than
in liquid form.
 Practice Question

Scientists are concerned about increased concentrations of atmospheric carbon

dioxide due to increased fossil fuel combustion and deforestation. In addition to
major effects on global temperatures, increased levels of CO2 can threaten aquatic
organisms in which way?

a) forming more carbonic acid in a solution that raises the pH

of seawater
b) forming more carbonic acid that decreases the
concentration of carbonate ions in seawater
c) increasing photosynthesis rates in aquatic plants and algae
d) decreasing the oxygen available for cellular respiration in
aquatic organisms
e) increasing the levels of harmful sulfur oxides and nitrous
oxides
 The Importance of Carbon

• Carbon is the most versatile atom on Earth

• Because of its four valence electrons
• Because it can form many covalent bonds
• Carbon-containing molecules can form
• An almost limitless array of molecular shapes
• With different combinations of single and double bonds
• The formation of carbon–carbon bonds was an important
event in chemical evolution
The Shapes of Carbon-Containing Molecules

(a) Carbons linked in a chain (b) Carbons linked in a ring

C6H12O6 Glucose

C8H18 Octane
 Functional Groups:
Determinants of Chemical Behavior

• Organic molecules contain atoms of carbon joined

together by covalent bonds (backbone) that gives
the molecule its overall shape
• Carbon chain’s most basic form is that of a hydrocarbon
= only hydrogen bonded to the chain.
• Functional groups are atoms or compounds
covalently bonded to a carbon backbone
• Atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, or
sulfur may be present as specific functional groups in
the organic molecule.
• Functional groups give organic compounds distinct
properties, such as solubility