Chapter 4

Drilling Fluids

EE047-3.5-2
Drilling Engineering
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 Formula to a Safe and Healthy Drilling?

• Drilling fluids  Blood

• Mud pump  Heart

• Shale shaker + Desander + Desilter  Liver and Kidney

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 Composition of Drilling Fluids

• The continuous phase

– Medium for chemical reaction
– Water or oil

• The reactive solid phase

– Reactive chemicals
– Clay and shales

• The inert solid phase

– Non-reactive chemicals
– Sand, weight materials, inactive chemicals

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 The Continuous Phase

• The continuous phase in water-base muds (WBM) can vary,

depending on the water available at the drilling locations.

• Fresh water, seawater, hard water, soft water or various brine

concentrations can be used as the continuous phase in water-
base muds.

• The liquid phase of an oil-base muds (OBM) is made up of oil

and water, with the oil portion comprising the largest portion
and having the greatest influence on the behavior of the mud.

• Examples: palm oil, vegetable oil, diesel, etc.

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 Reactive Solids Phase

• The clay solids of the colloidal fraction are the active portion of
the mud.

• They react with water and chemicals in the mud.

• The clays used in drilling mud are earthy materials that absorb
water, or hydrate, and expand.

• The amount of hydration that occurs depends on the type of

clay used and on the nature of the mixing water.

• Example of reactive solid is bentonite.

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 Inert Solid Phase

• Inert solid do not react with chemicals (including clay and

water) in the drilling mud.

• Inert solid materials are used to alter the properties of the

drilling muds such as density and viscosity without reacting
with the continuous and reactive solids phase.

• Examples are barite, CaCO3, and sand.

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 Water-Based Mud (WBM)

• Most basic WBM systems begin with water, then clays and other chemicals
are incorporated into the water to create homogeneous blend. WBM is
used to cool the drill bit which is required rather than lubrication.

• Advantages:
– Reduced impact on environment.
– Viscosity easily controlled.
– Density easily controlled for low pressure formation well drilling.
– Drill chips easier removed from fluid at shakers.

• Disadvantages:
– Not as an efficient lubricant as OBM
– Can promote corrosion at drill bit
– Not efficient at high temperature
– Does not carry drill chips to the surface as efficiently as OBM
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 Oil-Based Mud (OBM)

• It is composed of oil as the continuous phase and water as

the dispersed phase in conjunction with emulsifiers, and
wetting agents.

• The oil base can be diesel, kerosene, fuel oil or selected

crude oil.

• Areas of use:
– Drilling and coring pay zones
– Workover operations
– Where waterbase mud cause problems (swelling shale, stuck pipe)

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 • Advantages:
– Easy to control
– Insensitive to water-base contaminates
– Excellent static friction
– Less drag
– Lengthen roller bits life
– No differential sticking risk
– Less damage to formation (good core & productivity index, PI)

• OBM are expensive, but are worth the cost when drilling
through:
– Troublesome shale that would otherwise swell and disperse in
WBM.
– To drill deep, high temperature holes that dehydrate WBM.
– To drill water-soluble zones.

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 • Disadvantages:
– Can cause toxic fumes that affect the drilling team
– Can be very high density/pressure and can cause damage
to wellbore/ surrounding formation.
– Contaminate areas of freshwater aquifers causing
environmental damage.
– Higher cost price
– Dirtier to handle
– Cannot apply some logging methods
– Sensitive to water and to some crudes
– Weighting materials may tend to settle out
– Possible fire hazard
– May damage rubbers in some equipment
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 Invert Mud (Oil + Water)

• An emulsion in which oil is the continuous or external phase

and water is the internal phase. 

• Invert emulsion usually refers to an oil-base mud, and can be

run with 5 to 50% water in the liquid phase, although there are
systems that are 100% oil.

• Advantages:
– Less fire hazard
– Less expensive
– Easier to treat at the surface

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 Air Drilling

• Air/gas drilling (“dust”) is a technique used in areas where the

formations are “dry” i.e: there is no influx of water or liquid
hydrocarbons.

• This medium requires significant compressed gas volumes to

clean the well with average velocities of over 3000ft/minutes.

• Advantages:
– Increased Rate of Penetration (ROP)
– Reduced formation damage
– Improved bit performance
– Lost circulation control
– Continuous Drill Stem Test (DST)

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 Mist Drilling
• Mist drilling is air drilling with liquids, generally water, soap, and
chemical inhibitors. The water and soap mixture is added to the air
stream at the drilling surface at a controlled rate to improve annular
hole cleaning.

• Benefits:
– The rate of penetration is higher than in conventional mud
drilling, drilling can proceed while producing fluids.
– Hole cleaning capacity improves.
– Risk of downhole fires decreases.
– No nitrogen is needed.

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 Foam Drilling
• In foam drilling, water, surfactants, and air are combined to create a
stiff foam.

• The foam is then circulated as a drilling fluid. The cuttings carrying

capacity is 6-7 times greater than dust drilling, and the required
annular velocity for optimum hole cleaning is significantly lower.

• Benefits:
– Faster penetration rates
– Low air requirements
– Low fluid requirements
– No damage to the formation
– Continuous Drill Stem Test (DST)
– Best for large holes
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 Aerated Drilling

• Air or Nitrogen is added to the liquid phase of the drilling fluid, lowering
the effective mud weight.

• Used as an underbalanced drilling fluid as it is easiest to control in small

hole.

• Initially designed as a technique to lighten mud to reduce lost circulation.

• The air / N2 is injected directly into the standpipe using:

– Jet sub
– Parasite string
– Dual casing string

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 oil based mud
Shale stability
water based mud

Reservoir damage Lubrication

Temperature Rate of
stability penetration

Corrosion Environment
inhibitor protection
Resistance to
contamination

Technical comparison: oil / water based muds

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 Function of Drilling Fluids

• Hole Cleaning
– Removing cuttings from below the drill bit is still a crucial
function of a drilling fluid. The circulatory fluid rising from the
bottom of the well bore carries the cuttings toward the surface.

– Under the influence of gravity, these cuttings tend to fall

through the ascending fluid. This is known as slip velocity. The
slip velocity will depend upon the viscosity (thickness) and
density of the fluid. The thicker the fluid, the lower the slip
velocities.

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 Function of Drilling Fluids
• Lubricate and cool the bit and drilling assembly.
– Using the proper drilling fluids will prevent increased torque
and drag, premature bit failure, slow drilling rate, equipment
stress and damage to electronic transmitters.

• Minimize formation damage.

– Using the proper drilling fluids will prevent hole collapse, clay
swelling, bit balling, mud rings (gumbo), and excessive solids.

• Suspend drilled cuttings during static periods.

– Using the proper drilling fluids will prevent bridging, stuck pipe,
development of cutting beds in horizontal and high angle
holes.
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 Function of Drilling Fluids

• Transmit hydraulic energy to the bit.

– In some drilling operations, drillers are using the hydraulic
energy from the circulated drilling fluids to power-up
downhole equipment.

– A mud motor (or drilling motor) is a progressive cavity

positive displacement pump (PCPD) placed in the drill
string to provide additional power to the bit while drilling.

– The PCPD pump uses drilling fluid to create eccentric

motion in the power section of the motor which is
transferred as concentric power to the drill bit. 

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 Removal of Cuttings

• Once the cuttings are out of the hole, they must be removed from
the system to keep from being recirculated.

• This can be done by using a low-gel-strength fluid and allowing

the cuttings to settle out.

• The cuttings can also be removed by mechanical means such as

shale shakers, desanders or desilters.

• If the cuttings are recirculated, they are subjected to further

grinding action and abrasion. As the cuttings become smaller, they
become harder to remove and tend to remain in the system.

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 Function of Drilling Fluids

• Subsurface pressure control.

– The proper restraint of formation pressures depends upon
the density (weight) of the fluid.

– Abnormal high pressures can be controlled by the

weighting up of a fluid with the addition of certain
materials.

– In some cases, however, a fluid can become too heavy

and hydraulically fracture a formation, causing lost
circulation.

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 Wall Building (Mudcake)

• A drilling fluid will deposit a mudcake on the wall of the wellbore.

• This mudcake helps protect the formation by retarding the

passage of mud filtrate into it.

• The higher the permeability of a formation, the greater its ability to

accept and receive large volumes of mud filtrate. Therefore, the
nature of this mudcake will have a direct effect on such problems
as formation damage, sloughing, caving, tight hole and stuck pipe.

• The type of mudcake is determined by the quantity and quality of

particles in the mud system.

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 Drilling Mud Additives

• Drilling mud additives are specialty products that serve a specific

need to deliver consistent performance mandated by
environmental regulations.

• Examples of mud additives:

– Viscosifiers
– Filtrate reducers
– Dispersant
– pH control
– Calcium precipitation
– Weighting materials
– Lost circulation materials

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 Drilling Fluid Additives (cont’d)

• Soda ash  pH and hardness control in makeup water

• High yield  viscosifier, gel strength, filter cake
• PHPA’s  clay inhibition, encapsulation, viscosity and lubricity
• PAC’s  fluid loss control, promote thin and firm filter cake, and
increase viscosity
• Rheology modifiers  increase the suspension ability of fluid (gel
strength), and viscosity
• Thinners/ Dispersants  break down clays to reduce problems
associated with swelling and sticky clays
• Lubricants  lubricates, reduces torque, corrosion protection and
scale reduction
• Detergent  wetting agent to prevent clay from sticking to the pipe

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 Common WBM Additives
• Weighting materials: hematite, barite, calcium carbonate

• Viscosifiers: bentonite, attapulgite, guar gum, biopolymers

• Dispersants/deflocculants: tannin, lignosulfonate

• Filtration control agents: starch, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC),

organic polymers

• Lost circulation control: granular type (nut shells), fibrous (wood

fibers), cellophane flakes

• pH control: caustic soda, soda ash

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 • The physical properties of a drilling fluid, density and rheological
properties are constantly monitored to assist in optimizing the
drilling process.

• These physical properties contribute to several important aspects

for successfully drilling a well, including:
1) Provide pressure control to prevent an influx of formation fluid.
2) Provide energy at the bit to maximize Rate of Penetration (ROP).
3) Provide well bore stability through pressured or mechanically
stressed zones.
4) Suspend cuttings and weight material during static periods.
5) Permit separation of drilled solids and gas at surface.
6) Remove cuttings from the well.
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 Mud Weight
• In the oil industry, mud weight is the density of the drilling fluid and is
normally measured in pounds per gallon (lb/gal) or (ppg) or pound cubic
feet (pcf).

• Mud weight window must be designed to be in between the minimum

pore pressure and the maximum fracture pressure. Pressure exerted by
mud weight under static and dynamic conditions must remain within the
“mud weight window”.

• Three main parameters need to be considered in selecting mud weight:

– The anticipated maximum pore pressure for the drilled section
– The anticipated minimum fracture fracture for the drilled section
– A mud weight to keep stable formation while drilling

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 How to Plan a Mud Program

• Obtain pore pressure and casing program  set mud weights.

• Look for geological hazards, ECDs and hydraulics  set optimum
viscosities
• Establish maximum fluid loss by intervals  set other critical
properties (sand content, pH, etc.)
• Select mud type by interval  check mud program against other
phase of well plan for possible conflict
• Write mud systems composition  determine material requirements
• Develop contingency plan for kicks  hole trouble

** Drilling fluid specialists, usually associated with Service Companies

can provide valuable expertise / assistance to the well planner.

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 Mud Selection Criteria

• HPHT wells with MW > 15

lb/gal + T > 300°F:
– OBM are more stable with
high temperatures.
– True downhole rheological
properties (viscosity / gel
strength) affects ECD,
swab and surge pressures.

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 • Horizontal wells:
– OBM and SBM are often selected while drilling.
– Factors to consider in drilling activity hole cleaning, torque &
drag, wellbore stability
– Factors to consider in well completion activity  formation
damage, filtration, mud cleanup.

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 • ERD wells:
– OBM and SBM are often selected for their high levels of lubricity and
inhibition.
– Barite sag, excessive torque & drag, wellbore stability, stuck pipe are
key mud-related concerns.
– Elevated low-shear-rate viscosities improve hole cleaning and
minimize barite slag.

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 Disposal of Drilling Muds
• Onshore:
– The cuttings shall be stabilized prior to be disposed to the
environment or re-injected.
– Bio-remediation is a natural process where micro organisms degrade
hydrocarbons. Landfarming process uses large dedicated areas
where cuttings are spread to bring them in contact with air to
accelerate the process.

• Offshore:
– Refer to national/local regulations*.
– The ratio of total base fluid discharged with cuttings to the sea for one
completed well is not exceeding 8% (approx)* by weight (weight of
base fluid by weight of dry retorted cuttings).
– The daily average retention of base fluid of disposed drilled cuttings
to the sea for any drilling phase is not exceeding 14% (approx)*.
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 Disposal of OBM

• Toxicity testing:
– The environmental and toxicity standards of the region in
which the fluid is being used will require testing either of
the whole drilling fluid or of its individual components.
– Toxicity tests generally are used for offshore applications.
An approved laboratory can perform the proper testing to
ensure compliance of the fluid or its components.
– Tests on a population of organisms for determining if mud
and cuttings can be discharged in offshore waters.
– The quantity of base fluid in cuttings is obtained by
distillation in a distiller (retort and condenser) with a
weighting procedure.
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 Measured Properties of Drilling Fluids

• pH
• Temperature
• Viscosity
• Mud weight (density of fluid)
• Hardness/ chlorides determination
• Mudcake thickness

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 Mud Balance
(Mud Density Measurement)

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 Marsh Funnel
(Rheology Measurement)
• Description:
– The Marsh funnel is 6 in. in diameter at the top and 12 in.
long. At the bottom, a smooth-bore tube 2 in. long having an
inside diameter of 3 /16 in. is attached in such a way that
there is no constriction at the joint. A wire screen having 1
/16-in. openings, covering one-half of the funnel, is fixed at a
level of 3 /4 in. below the top of the funnel.

• Calibration :
– Fill the funnel to the bottom of the screen (1,500 ml) with
freshwater at 70±5°F. Time of outflow of 1 qt (946 ml) should
be 26 sec ±0.5 sec.
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 μ = ρ (t - 25)

Where,
μ = effective viscosity in
centipoise
ρ = density in g/cm³
t = quart funnel time in
seconds

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 Rotational Viscometer
(Rheology Measurement)
•Description:
– Direct-indicating viscometers are rotational types of instruments
powered by an electric motor or a hand crank.
– Drilling fluid is contained in the annular space between two eccentric
cylinders.
– The outer cylinder or rotor sleeve is driven at a constant RPM
(rotational velocity).
– The rotation of the rotor sleeve in the fluid produces a torque on the
bob or inner cylinder.
– A torsion spring restrains the movement of the bob, and a dial
attached to the bob indicates displacement of the bob.
– Instrument constants have been adjusted so that plastic viscosity
and yield point are obtained by using readings from rotor sleeve
speeds of 600 and 300 RPM.

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 Parameters Obtained from
Rheology Measurement
1. Plastic viscosity
– Flow resistance in mud caused by mechanical friction. Example:
concentration, size, shape of solids.

2. Yield point
– A measurement, under flowing conditions, the attractive or
electrochemical forces in the mud.

3. Gel strength
– A measurements relate to the attractive forces of mud while it is at rest.

4. Apparent viscosity
– The measure of viscosity as a time rate of flow.

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 Gel Strength

• The time-dependent forces in the drilling mud cause an

increase in viscosity as the fluid remains quiescent for a
certain period of time.

• The gel strength is a measurement of the electrochemical

forces within the fluid under static conditions.

• The strength is a function of suspended solids, solid contents,

temperature, chemical content and time. Usually it is caused
by the high concentration of clay.

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 Procedure for Gel Strength
Determination
1.Stir sample at 600 RPM for approximately 15 sec and slowly lift
the gear assembly to the neutral position.

2.Shut motor off and wait 10 sec.

3.Flip switch to the low-speed position and record maximum

deflection units in lb/100 ft2 as initial gel. If the dial indicator does
not return to zero with motor off, do not reposition. (initial gel
strength)

4. Repeat 1 and 2, but allow 10 min, then place switch in the

low-speed position and read maximum deflection units as the 10-
min gel. Report measured temperature. (10 min Gel strength)

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 LPLT Filter Press
(Filtration Measurement)
• Description:
– The filtration or wall-building property of a mud is determined by
means of a filter press.
– The test consists of determining the rate at which fluid is forced
through the filter paper.
– The test is run under specified conditions of time, temperature and
pressure.
– The thickness of the solid filter cake deposited is measured after the
test.
– The filter press being used should meet specifications as designated
in the API Recommended Practice and conducted in the manner
suggested.
– The API fluid loss is conducted at surface temperature at 100 psi
pressure, and is recorded as the number of millilitres lost in 30 min.
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 pH Paper
(H- Ion Concentration, pH Measurement)

• The recommended method for pH measurement of

drilling fluid is with the glass-electrode electronic pH
meter similar to the Orion model No. 201.

• This meter is accurate and gives reliable pH values,

being essentially free of interferences. Measurements
can be made quickly and easily, automatically adjusting
slope and temperature compensation.

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 Properties of Clay

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Solutions:

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Solutions:

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Solutions:

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Solutions:

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 Solutions:

Product SG Density Density Total Total

(ppg) (ppb) Volume Mass
(bbl)
Barite 4.2 35 1470 57.93 85,157

Water 1.0 8.33 349.86 332.84 116,447

Bentonite 2.6 21.66 909.72 9.23 8,399

Total 400 210003

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 • Provided pressure

P = 0.052 * Mw (ppg) * Depth (ft)

or

P = Mw (Psi/ft) * Depth (ft)

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