Earth Materials: ROCKS

Most rocks consist of one or more minerals

(although volcanic glass and organic matter can also
form rocks, even though technically neither are
minerals). There are three main groups of rocks:

1. Igneous rocks form from solidification of magma

(molten rock).

2. Sedimentary rocks form from solidification of

sediment (particles formed from the erosion of older
rocks, or by chemical or biological processes at the
earth’s surface).

3. Metamorphic rocks form from other rocks changed

in a solid state by heat, fluids, and pressure.
One type of rock can be transformed over geologic time into another type. This
process is known as the rock cycle.
Heat it up. Because earth’s
temperature increases with
depth, rocks will melt if they
are shoved back into the
mantle. The earth’s increase
in temperature with depth is
called the geothermal
gradient.

Oceanic crust is continuously

being recycled along
subduction zones where
denser, colder, older oceanic
crust is pushed beneath
either oceanic crust or
continental crust.
Release Pressure.
Remember there is also an increase in pressure within the earth—SOLID rocks under
pressure. Confining pressure of atoms at great depths pushes them closer
together (than if the rocks were at the earth’s surface).
To change from a solid to a liquid requires the atoms to spread apart. Well we can
spread apart atoms by heating them (of course) OR by releasing the pressure.
Rocks deeper in the earth are solid at a
higher temperature due to the high
pressure (atoms closer together
under the high pressure).
Therefore, the melting point of rocks
increases with increasing pressure.
(under pressure rocks will remain
solid at high temperatures).

Cracking the lithosphere at MOR

releases pressure ALLOWING the
atoms to spread apart which allows
for melting without changing the
temperature.
This is why we have constant volcanism
along mid-ocean ridges—continuously
spewing out basalt creating oceanic
crust.
There are three main groups of rock:

1.Frozen rocks formed from the compaction of

magma (liquid rock).

2.Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment

compaction (particles formed from older erosion
of rocks, or by chemical or biological processes
on the earth's surface).

3.Metamorphic rocks formed from other rocks

change in solid state by heat, fluid, and pressure.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
Any rocks produced from molten magma or lava that cools from a
liquid to a solid.

Two types of activity could produce igneous rocks: volcanism (lava

reaching the surface) and plutonism (magma crystallizing beneath
the surface). So what is the difference between magma and lava?

Igneous rocks are classified using two criteria: TEXTURE (the

size and shape of the minerals) and MINERAL COMPOSITION
(the types and abundance of minerals present).

Examining the rock CHEMICAL (MINERAL) COMPOSITION and

the rock TEXTURE can tell you where and how the rock formed.
Crystallization occurs when molten rock cools.
As the melt begins to cool, movement of
atoms slow down to arrange themselves into
certain minerals until the crystals are
closely packed with no spaces between them.
The first chemical bonds to form are Si and O
forming the tetrahedra. Then, whatever
remaining ions are available, will determine
the silicate structure (isolated, single
chains, double chains, sheets or framework).
High amounts of iron and magnesium in the
melt should produce darker, mafic minerals
such as augite, hornblende and olivine. Melts
with little iron and magnesium (but perhaps
K, Na, Ca, Al) will produce felsic minerals.
The chemistry of the melt/rock (i.e. how much
Si, O, Fe, Mg) will determine:
 The temperature it will melt or crystallize.
 The order that minerals will melt or
crystallize.
 Which minerals will crystallize.
Pay close attention here.
As a melt cools, minerals will crystallize in a specific
ORDER based on their melting points which is related
to their SILICATE STRUCTURE.
REGARDLESS OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE MELT,
minerals will crystallize in this order (first forming
simple silicates and getting more and more complex).
Olivine (isolated)
Augite (single chain)
Hornblende (double chain)
Biotite (sheet)
and finally Quartz (framework).

The first elements to BOND as a melt cools is the silica

tetrahedron (remember, it is the basic building block).
After silica tetrahedra form, Fe and Mg are sucked out of
the melt to fill up the tetrahedra.
But the goal is to have Fe and Mg equally distributed
amongst as many silica tetrahedra as possible.
As the melt cools
the first mineral
to crystallize is
olivine. Isolated
tetrahedra
surrounded by
maximum Fe and
Mg that ionically
‘glue’ the
tetrahedra
together.
Remember olivine is
‘isolated’ and
Ultramafic with
the highest
amount of Fe and
Mg.
If excess silica
remains in the
melt as the
temperature
begins to drop,
olivine will REACT
with the melt.
The isolated
tetrahedra will
link up to form
single chains.
Recall single chains
require less Fe
and Mg to
neutralize. Olivine
will become
Augite.
If STILL excess
silica remains in
the melt as the
temperature
begins to drop,
augite will REACT
with the melt.
The single chains
become double
chains requiring
less Fe and Mg to
be neutral.
Augite becomes
Hornblende.
If STILL excess
silica remains in
the melt as the
temperature
begins to drop,
hornblende will
react with the
melt.
The double chains
will become sheets
requiring less Fe
and Mg to be
neutral.
Hornblende
becomes Biotite.
Okay– if the initial melt is low in Fe
and Mg to begin with, the
crystallized igneous rocks should
not have mafic minerals in it.
They would have reacted with the
melt changing the arrangement of
the tetrahedra so that less Fe and
Mg is required to neutralize the
silicate.
Felsic rocks therefore do not contain
mafic (olivine, augite, hornblende)
minerals in them. A felsic melt will
crystallize the mafic minerals,
however the melt is so rich in Si and
O that it must evenly distribute the
Fe and Mg so the mafic minerals
react to form less mafic minerals.
AT THE SAME TIME the
discontinuous branch is running,
the continuous branch is focused
on forming non ferromagnesian
minerals.
Here, Si and O are used to form
feldspars. At higher
temperatures, Feldspars that
have large amounts of Ca are
formed first until all the Ca is
used up.
As temperature drops, Na is
incorporated into the feldspars
until it is used up.
Feldspars DO NOT REACT with the
melt to change their silicate
structure. Whatever feldspars
formed will be found in the
resultant rock.
IF after both series run their
course and STILL excess silica
remains in the melt, then
microcline K feldspar and
muscovite will form.
IF all you have left is Si and O,
then quartz will form.

Felsic rich melts will result in

quartz form. Mafic rich melts
will not.
If the melt is mafic, the series
will run only until augite and
hornblende forms (and Ca rich
feldspar). With so little silicon
and oxygen to begin with, the
melt runs out of tetrahedra
and all that Fe and Mg in the
melt is incorporated into mafic
minerals.
THEREFORE a felsic igneous rock
may not have olivine or augite in it,
but it DID as the melt was cooling.
It just so happens the mafic
minerals reacted to use up all that
left over silicon and oxygen by
forming increasingly complex silicate
minerals.
If all magmas originally derive from the mantle (ultramafic)
then how do we get felsic melts?

If lava at MOR is mafic, then how do we get felsic continental

crust?

How do we get FELSIC or MAFIC rocks originating from the

mantle if the mantle is ULTRAMAFIC?
Crystal Settling
The downward movement of minerals that are denser
than the magma from which it crystallized.
As a melt begins to cool, early developed minerals will
crystallize leaving the remaining melt more silica
rich. If the melt cools slowly, these minerals are
denser and will settle out of the ‘reaction’ so they
can’t react with the melt.
The remaining melt will crystallize in the absence of
Fe and Mg that are tied up in the early forming
minerals that dropped out of the reaction.
You therefore can obtain an intermediate melt from
an originally mafic melt; or a felsic melt originally
from an intermediate melt.
Assimilation
A magma body working its way up through the
lithosphere may crack and break rocks apart
that it is intruding into (like melting ice cubes
in iced tea—diluting the tea). We can ‘dilute’
the Fe and Mg if we add felsic (high Si and
O) continental crust rock into a mafic magma.
The magma will assimilate other rocks into it,
melting them and thus changing the chemical
composition. I.e. mafic magma assimilating
granite to form a new intermediate melt.
Magma Mixing
Two magmas of different composition can
mix together to form a new melt within
the crust.
Partial Melting
Minerals crystallize in an order and they also melt in the
reverse order (Bowen’s reaction series backwards).
As you slowly heat up rock, the silica rich minerals melt
first (having the lowest melting temperature) like
quartz, muscovite, etc.
Slowly heating up a rock will result in melting felsic
minerals first, which become liquid, less dense and
rises up through the crust separating itself from the
remaining rock.
The solid rock residue left behind will have a higher
composition of Fe and Mg.
The atoms and minerals chapter familiarized you with basic chemistry and
bonding and the chemical compositions of felsic and mafic minerals.
In the igneous rocks chapter we learned how an amalgamation of silicate
minerals produces different igneous rocks (felsic, mafic, intermediate,
ultramafic). Rocks are different in overall color which has to do with the
percentage of Fe and Mg in the minerals making up these rocks.
The different mineral chemistries of these igneous rocks, therefore dictate
WHERE they are found on the earth. Densest stuff in the mantle (with the
highest Fe and Mg and darker minerals) and least dense at the continental
crust (highest Si and O, lowest Fe and Mg—lighter colored rocks).
Crystal size tells us whether the rocks cooled quickly (at the earth’s surface
—volcanic) or slowly (large crystals indicate slow cooling—plutonic).
Taking chemical and textural clues, we can look at an igneous rock and tell
where it formed (which layer of the earth and if it was a lava flow at the
earth’s surface or a magma body that cooled in the crust).
All this information will allow you to understand the next chapter on
volcanism and plutonism. Not all volcanoes are alike!
MINERAL COMPOSITION:
Recall the silicate minerals we learned about.
Silicate minerals have varying percentages of Si, O,
Fe and Mg.

The chemical composition of the magma determines

which types of silicate minerals will form.
 Magma rich in silicon (called felsic magma) will
form felsic minerals producing light-colored felsic
rocks,
 Magma rich in iron and magnesium (called mafic
magma) will form mafic minerals producing dark-
colored mafic rocks.
 FELSIC igneous rocks contain felsic
minerals with a high Si and O concentration
with little or no Fe or Mg.

 What are some silicate minerals we would

expect to find in Felsic igneous rocks?
Mostly quartz, plagioclase
(white feldspar), orthoclase
(pink feldspar) and
muscovite mica.

Since these minerals

contain abundant Si and O,
they tend to have a lower
density and have a lighter
color (remember Fe and Mg
cause darker colors).

Where do you think we

would find our lowest
density rocks on earth?
 The minerals in felsic igneous rocks are high
in silica which means the tetrahedra share
many or all of the oxygens.

 What does large amounts of covalent

bonding tell us about the stability of felsic
igneous rocks?
 Felsic melts (molten rock) tend to be ‘thick’ or
viscous due to the high sharing of oxygens among
tetrahedra.
 Tetrahedra form long, thin chains that become
tangled in the melt.
 This results in thick, slow ‘flowing’ (viscous) melt
and these rocks tend to be found associated with
violent volcanic eruptions.
 Pumice (left), Rhyolite (bottom left),
Granite (bottom right).
 Granite can come in many colors,
depending on the chemistry of the melt.
 You can see the light minerals, pink
(orthoclase), white (plagioclase) and a few
dark minerals (augite and hornblende).
Overall, the rocks are made of felsic
minerals.
Felsic Igneous Rocks: Are lighter in color, have high amounts of
silica and oxygen (lower amounts of iron and magnesium). Because of
their chemistry, they tend to be of lower density than their mafic
counterparts. Felsic igneous rocks tend to form at the
continental crust!

Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic

HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg
Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X
No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
 MAFIC silicate minerals contain Si and O but they
have a much higher percentage of Fe and Mg.

 Silica tetrahedra do not share as many oxygens in

these minerals so to neutralize the charge on the
tetrahedra, ions such as Fe and Mg are needed.

 The ions form IONIC bonds with the tetrahedra.

How would we expect the stability of mafic minerals
to be different from felsic?

 Which silicate minerals make up mafic igneous rocks?

 The darker ones! Augite, Hornblende and
Olivine.
 Lower percentages of silica tetrahedra
sharing oxygen results in a less viscous melt.
Mafic rocks are usually associated with
non-violent volcanic eruptions.
 Mafic minerals are denser than felsic
minerals. So where do you think we would
find them on earth?
Scoria (left), Basalt
(bottom left), Gabbro
(bottom).
Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg

Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X

No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
 INTERMEDIATE igneous rocks
have a chemistry somewhere in
between felsic and mafic.
 They have more Si and O than
mafic but more Fe and Mg than
felsic minerals.
 An intermediate melt may result
when both felsic and mafic melts
MIX to form an intermediate
composition.
 See diorite, it has many dark
minerals (augite, hornblende) and
also light ones too (feldspars).
Gives the salt and pepper
appearance.
Intermediate rocks have a composition somewhere between felsic and mafic, and
therefore contain some felsic and some mafic minerals. They have more Si and O than
mafic but more Fe and Mg than felsic minerals.

INTERMEDIATE igneous rocks tend to form where you have felsic and mafic melts
MIX (such as a continental oceanic collision boundary).

Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic

HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg
Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X
No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too
small to see
with naked
eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTIT
E
Large XLS
 ULTRAMAFIC igneous rocks contain the least
amount of Si and O and the most amount of Fe and
Mg.
 These have the highest densities of all igneous
rocks.
 The dominant mineral is olivine (what was the
structure of olivine again?). How many oxygens are
shared between tetrahedra? What was the net
overall charge on the tetrahedra?
 In comparison to other silicate minerals, what would
the stability of olivine be?
 Ultramafic igneous rocks are found exclusively to
form in a layer of the earth called the mantle,
below the earth’s crust (because of the high
density due to all of that Fe and Mg).

 The most stable portion of the isolated silicate

structure is the actual tetrahedron. The isolated
tetrahedra are held together by ionic bonds (from
Fe and Mg). Therefore these minerals are easy to
break down.
Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg

Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X

No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
felsic
 Granite (left)
 Gabbro (bottom left)
 Peridotite (bottom)

ultramafic

mafic
Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg

Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X

No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
 APHANITIC rocks have small crystals. Mineral crysals are present but too small
to be visible with the naked eye. These rocks cool at an intermediate rate - slow
enough to form crystals but not slow enough for the crystals to be large enough to
see. Aphanitic texure most commonly forms in rocks that cool from lava at the
earth’s surface called extrusive igneous rocks.

 Rhyolite (left)
felsic
 Andesite (bottom left)
 Basalt (bottom right)

intermediate

mafic
Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg

Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X

No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
Glassy Igneous Rocks cool so rapidly, that atoms don’t have enough time
to get together, bond and form crystals. To cool this quickly the rocks
MUST be extrusive (cool at the earth’s surface).

 Pumice (left)
 Scoria (bottom left)
 Obsidian (bottom)
 Note gasses in the lava can cause fine
holes called vesicles as seen in the
pumice and scoria.
Chemistry Felsic Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic
HIGH SiO2 high SiO2 low SiO2 LOW SiO2
Texture LOW Fe, Mg low Fe, Mg high Fe, Mg HIGH Fe, Mg

Glassy PUMICE SCORIA X

No XLS OBSIDIAN OBSIDIAN

Aphanitic RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT X

XLS too small
to see with
naked eye
Phaneritic GRANITE DIORITE GABBRO PERIDOTITE
Large XLS
This diagram shows how texture and mineral composition are used
together to determine the type of igneous rock.
For example, a rock rich in the minerals olivine and pyroxene, with a
phaneritic texture (large crystals), is called peridotite. A rock rich
in the minerals quartz and potassium feldspar, with an aphanitic
texture (small crystals) is called rhyolite.
 Why are there no glassy, ultramafic rocks?
 Where on earth do you expect gabbro and basalt to occur?
Peridotite? Granite?
 Where do the holes (vesicles) come from?
 Where on earth do you expect to find felsic rocks form?
 At what type of boundary would you find intermediate
rocks form?
 What does crystal size tell us about the cooling rate of the
melt? Can it tell us where the rocks may have formed?
 Which of the rocks would you expect to be intrusive?
Extrusive?