EE 236: Electronic Circuits

Ch. 2 Resistive Circuits

Dr Feras Al-Dirini
These notes are updated versions of the original ones created by Dr Venkat Anantharam from The University of California, Berkeley, and Dr Muneer Al-
Absi and Dr. Hussein Attia from KFUPM. Many Thanks to them!
 2.1 Resistors in Series
Consider a circuit with multiple resistors connected in series.
Find their “equivalent resistance”.

I
• KCL tells us that the same
R1 current (I) flows through
R2 every resistor
V +
SS
−
R
3
• KVL tells us the sum of the
voltage drops across the
R4 resistors equals VSS

We conclude that the equivalent

resistance of resistors in series is the
sum of the individual resistances
2.1 Resistances in Series
 Resistors in Parallel
Consider a circuit with two resistors connected in parallel.
Find their “equivalent resistance”.
x • KVL tells us that the
same voltage is dropped
I1 I2
across each resistor
I R R
SS 1 2 Vx = I1 R1 = I 2 R 2
• KCL tells us that
ISS = I 1 + I2
Parallel Resistances

In case we have only two resistors in parallel:

Example : find the equivalent resistance
Example: Find Req in each
 Using Equivalent Resistances
Simplify a circuit before applying KCL and/or KVL:
Example: Find I
I R 1 = R 2= 3 k Ω
R1
R
3
R2 R 3 = 6 kΩ
+ R
7V 4
−
R R 4 = R5 = 5 k Ω
6
R5
R 6 = 10 kΩ

To Find I: Simplify the circuit to have only one source and one
resistor then use Ohm’s Law
2.2 Network Analysis by Using Series and Parallel Equivalents

See Full Solution in Book

 Identifying Series and Parallel Combinations
Some circuits must be analyzed as it is (not amenable to simple inspection)
R2
R1 R2

V
+ R3 I
−
+ R1 R3
R4 R5 V -

R4

R5

The above circuit cannot be simplified

Special cases: If R 3 = 0 or R 3= ∞ Then the circuit can be simplified

Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.
Example 6: Given the circuit shown below. Find Req.
Example 6: Continued.

This 10 ohm
disappears
Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.
Example 6: Continued.

10  resistor
shorted out

Req
Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.
Example 6: Continued.

Req

Req
Say we have a 10 V source and we need
to excite a 3v Light bulb
How can we do it?

3v Light bulb
The voltage-Divider Circuits 2.3
In some applications, we need to develop more than one voltage level from a single voltage
supply One way of doing this is by using a voltage-divider-circuit

In this circuit, the

source volt. Vs will be
divided between the R1
and R2
We analyze this circuit as follows

Using Ohm’s law, we have

 . We can see that v1 and v2 are each fraction of vs

 Each fraction is the ratio of the resistance across

which the divided voltage is defined to the Sum of
the two resistances.

 Because this ratio is always less than 1.0 , the divided

voltages v1 and v2 are always less than the source
voltage vs
Consider connecting a resistor RL in parallel with R2 as shown
The resistor RL acts as a load on the voltage-divider circuit

The output voltage vo becomes

Note as RL → ∞ , vo reduce to as it should be

Voltage Division
Determine V
Determine V
 When can the Voltage Divider Formula be Used?
I I
R1 R1
R2 + R2 +
V
SS
+ – V2 V
SS + – V2
− R3 − R3

R4 R4 R5

R R
V = 2 ⋅V V ≠ 2 VSS
2 SS 2

Correct, if nothing else Why? What is V2?

is connected to nodes
 The Current-Divider
The current divider consist of two resistors connected in parallel as shown

We will find the relationship between is and i1 and i2 as follows

The equation shows that the current is divided between two resistors in parallel such that
The current in one resistor is controlled by the other resistor
This is similar to a main water pipe that splits into
.two pipes with different cross sections (similar to conductances)
Pipe 1

Pipe 2
?Which pipe will pass more water
The pipe with larger cross section so less obstacle
will pass more water )i.e, less resistance ( Pipe 2
Current Division
 Determine I and ix by current division

Two-resistor current division rule

From original circuit

You can solve this problem using the G eq. as in previous slide .. Much easier
Determine vx

Single loop circuit

Current division in the original circuit

 Determine ix, iy, and I as well as vx

From Fig. c

Or using voltage division

From (b) by Ohm’s law

Or using current division

By current division
 2.4 Node-Voltage Analysis

Consider the circuit

shown
Circuit cannot be
solved by combining
resistances in series
and parallel
Also, voltage-division
and current-division
principles cannot be
applied to this circuit
So, How can we solve
it?
Nodal Analysis
2.4 Node-Voltage Analysis

What is the current in R2 in the direction

shown?
 2.4 Node-voltage analysis
Example 1
Derive the nodal equations >> Four Steps Solution

Step 1 identify all essential nodes that connect three or more elements >> we have 3 nodes as seen above

Step 2 select one of the essentials nodes ( 1, 2, or 3) as a reference node >> usually we choose the bottom node as seen
above
Step 3 label all non-reference nodes with alphabetical label as v1, v2…

Step 4 write KCL equation on all labels non-refereferencerence nodes as shown next
Nodal Analysis

Example 1

KCL at

Two Eqs in
KCL at
Two
unknowns
Nodal Analysis
Example 2 Derive the nodal equations to calculate i 1 and i2
 Nodal Analysis

Example 2 continue

Derive the nodal equations

to calculate i1 and i2
Team Problem
Ex. 3 Derive the nodal equations
Team Problem

Example 3

Use your
calculators to
solve these 3 Eqs
in 3 unknowns
How to solve these 3 Eqs in 3 unknowns?
Complete solution to get i x
 Example: Determine Current I by writing node-voltage equations

Supernode
va vb vc

Supernode

From constraints

Drawing supernode around node a and c

KCL for the supernode gives:
Substitution from constraints

The current I is:

 Repeat the previous ex. after choosing another Supernode

Va – Vc = -1
Vb = -3
Then write KCL of the Supernode as follows

2 + (Vb – Va)/2 + (0 - Vc)/3 + (0 – Va)/2 = 0

Va = 1/8

Continue solution as in previous slide …..

As seen in this slide and the previous one, two

different supernodes have been used
 Repeat the previous ex. after choosing another Ref Node

Va = -1 V
Vc – Vb = 3
Then write KCL of the Supernode

Supernode
Supernode

A supernode is formed by drawing a dashed line enclosing several

nodes and any elements connected between them.
• For the supernode enclosing the 10-V source, we sum currents leaving and
obtain:
• Using KVL and traveling clockwise and summing the voltages around the loop
with the 10-V source, we obtain :
Ch 2 Resistive Circuits

2.5 Mesh-Current
analysis
 Mesh Analysis

Definition of Mesh
A loop that does not enclose any other loops

We have ONLY 4 Meshes

Definition of Mesh
A mesh is a circuit loop that does not enclose any elements
The mesh currents are fictitious currents that are defined to
flow only around the mesh
 Mesh Analysis
Currents through Elements & Mesh Currents:

The currents ia, ib , ic are

currents through elements
(branch currents)

The imaginary currents i1 & i2 are mesh currents

We imagine i1 to circulate around mesh 1 (CW)

We imagine i2 to circulate around mesh 2 (also CW)

ic
Relation between branch currents and Mesh Currents
 A three-mesh circuit and
the mesh currents

The general rules for writing mesh-current

equations
1. Define the mesh currents
2. Write the total current through each element in terms of the mesh
currents flowing through them
3. Write KVL around each mesh
4. Put these equations in standard form, and solve them for the mesh
currents
 Mesh Analysis
Example

Express the branch currents in terms of mesh currents

ix= ?
iy= ?
iz= ?
iw= ?
 Mesh Analysis

Write the Mesh Equations

-10 + 2 i1 + 6 (i1-i2) = 0

6 (i2-i1) + 4 i2 -5 = 0 No of Mesh Equations = No of ????

Mesh Analysis
Example: Write the mesh currents equations

Mesh 1 >> 4 i1 – 8 + 6(i1 – i2) = 0

Mesh 2 >> +6(i2 - i1) + 8 (i2 – i3)+12 =0

Mesh 3 >> 8(i3 – i2) +8 +2 i3 =0

Resolve the previous problems
using Nodal Analysis … see how
long the solution will take using
Mesh and Nodal methods …
then you decide which method is
faster
Ex:Write the mesh-current equations and determine current I

KVL around each mesh

Solving for mesh currents

In matrix form

Therefore:
Ex: Use Node Method and determine current I
(Would it be easier?)

• Vc = 2 V
This Node • Va - Vc = 3 >>> Va= 5 V
solution needs • Vb = ? Only One Unknown left
• Take Node Eq. at (b)
only 1-2 min
Find the currents in each element.
Grouping and placing in a standard form

In matrix form

KVL around each mesh give:

Once these equations are solved,

the current through each element
Can be written in terms of the
Mesh currents
 Circuit Containing Current Sources

Mesh-current equations when a circuit contains

a current source
1. Define the mesh currents in the usual
fashion
2. Write the constraints that are imposed on the
mesh currents by any current sources.
3. Draw loops around all pairs of meshes that
share a current source
4. Write KVL for all these loops and all other
meshes except those
meshes that have a current source in an
outside branch
5. Substitute the constraints imposed on the
mesh currents by the current sources into
these equations and place them in standard
form
Circuit Containing Current Sources

Hence only one mesh current is unknown

Voltage across current source is unknown, so we

apply KVL around mesh 1 and mesh 2
SuperMesh
M1

Substitute constraints:

Then find I1 easily

Ex. Determine V by writing mesh equations

Constraints:

KVL around mesh 2 and 3

Substituting current constraints

Hence the voltage is

[ ] [ ]
𝑖1 4
𝑖2 = 1
𝑖3 2
The current through the 10 Ohm resistance is 5 A
Write mesh equations in matrix form for the following circuit
Mesh Currents in Circuits Containing Current Sources
 Supermesh
A circuit with a current source
common to two meshes.

𝑖2 − 𝑖1=5
• KVL equation around the periphery of meshes 1 and 2 combined yields:

• Next, we can write a KVL equation for mesh 3:

These 3 equations can be solved for the mesh currents

 Objectives

To learn about
2.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Source Transformation
Source Transformations
To convert a circuit to a single-loop or single-node-pair

The two circuits are equivalent if their i-v relations are identical

KVL: KCL:

The two circuits are

equivalent if
Polarity of Vs in one form must be such that it tends to
push in the direction of Is in the other form
Ex.:
Determine i and ix using source transformation

Single loop

ix should be found from the original circuit

Ex : Determine I and V

Transform the 3V in series with the 2 Ohm resistor

We get a single-node-pair circuit

Using Ohm’s law in the original circuit:

Source Transformations

Example (a) find the power associated with the 6 V source

(b) State whether the 6 V source is absorbing or
delivering power

We are going to use source transformation to reduce the circuit, however note that we
will not alter or transfer the 6 V source because it is the objective.
Source Transformations
Source Transformations
Source Transformations

The 6 V source is absorbing 4.95 W

It should be clear if we transfer the 6V during these steps you will not be able to find
the power associated with it
• Can we solve it
using Source
Transformation
?
• Is it the
quickest
method?
In the circuit in previous slide
Transform 10 V source once
Transform 1 A source twice
Then combine (some) resistors in parallel and combine the current
sources
Then it will be solved using current divider easily 
Problem

Find Ix using source transformation

 How to deactivate a source?

(a) replacing a deactivated voltage source with a short circuit,

(b) replacing a deactivated current source with an open circuit.
Why Thévenin Equivalent Circuit is important?

Thévenin’s Theorem provides an easy method for analysing power

circuits, which typically has a load that changes value during
analysis
It also provides an efficient way to calculate the voltage and current
flowing across a load without having to recalculate the entire circuit
over
By simplifying the rest of the circuit with Thevenin’s equivalent,
voltage and current at a specific terminal can be calculated thus
providing an efficient way to focus analysis on a specific portion of
a circuit
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 2.6
Thévenin and Norton equivalents are circuit simplification techniques that focus on
terminal behavior and thus are extremely valuable aids in analysis.

Let us find the Thevenin Equivalent of the following circuit

Thévenin equivalent circuit is an independent voltage source VTH in series with a

resistor RTH which replaces an interconnection of sources and resistors. This series
combination of VTH and RTH is equivalent to the original circuit in the sense that, if we
connect the same load across the terminals a, b of each circuit, we get the same voltage
and current at the terminals of the load.
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 2.6

How can we get VTH and RTH from the original

circuit?
Let us find the Thevenin Equivalent of the following circuit

Vo.c.

VTh = Vo.c. in the original

How to find VTh circuit

How to find RTh

 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Thévenin and Norton equivalents are circuit simplification techniques that focus on
terminal behavior and thus are extremely valuable aids in analysis.

Let us find the Thevenin Equivalent of the following circuit

isc isc

How to find RTh

 Thévenin equivalent
Original Circuit

How to find RTh

2nd Method
1st Method
First find isc as follows Deactivate all sources
A voltage source is deactivated by
a
replacing it with a short circuit.
Original isc
Circuit A current source is deactivated
b
by replacing it with an open
circuit.
Calculate the resistance seen
looking into the network at the
designated terminal pair.
100
 Finding Thevenin Equivalent (Find VTh and RTh)

isc

VTH is the open circuit voltage between a and b in the original circuit

Reducing the load resistance to zero gives us a short-circuit condition.

isc
By hypothesis, this short-circuit current must be identical
to the short-circuit current that exists in a short circuit placed across the terminals a,b of
the original network.
See full
solution
in book
Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
Solution
• Zeroing sources by replacing the voltage source with a short circuit and
current source with an open circuit
• The Thévenin resistance is the equivalent resistance between the terminals
(figure b). Short circuit current is also found (figure c)
Solution
• The Thévenin voltage can be found as:

• The Thévenin equivalent circuit can be shown in figure (d) below

Example: Use the 2nd method (zeroing the sources) to find RTh in the circuit below
we deactivate the sources by shortening independent voltage sources and open independent current source (this is the same problem
solved in previous lecture)

This method is much simpler than 1st

method used in previous lecture
Find Thevenin equivalent (Rth and Vth) with respect to the terminals a and b

Using the 1st method (short circuit current ) )A(

Using the 2nd method (Deactivating the sources) )B(
(A) Using the 1st method (short circuit current )

(0.1-i1)

i1

Find Voc >> Take KVL around the red loop >> one unknown i1

The answer is Voc = 5 V

 ??? = RTh

Note that the 10 ohm

will be removed as it
.O. C is in parallel with S.C.
or zero resistance

Find is.c. yourself , Take KVL around the red loop >> one unknown

Thévenin equivalent
Using the 2nd method (Deactivating the independent sources) )B(
 Bonus Question
Let us find the Thevenin Equivalent of the following circuit

20

v 100
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalents

Find the Thevenin Equivalent of the following circuit

Let us find the Thevenin Equivalent using source transformations

The final circuit above is the SAME as the Thevenin circuit in previous slide
 Original Circuit The Thévenin Equivalent

You should verify that, if a 24-ohm resistor is connected across the terminals a, b in the
original circuit shown above, the voltage across the resistor will be 24 V and the current
in the resistor will be 1 A, as would be the case with the Thévenin circuit shown above.

This same equivalence between the original circuit and Thevenin Circuit holds for any
resistor value connected between nodes a,b.
 Norton
Thévenin IN = ISC Equivalent
equivalent
IN
Source
Transformation

A Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent current source

in parallel with the Norton equivalent resistance.
We can derive it from a Thévenin equivalent circuit simply by making a source
transformation as shown above.
Thus the Norton current equals the short-circuit current at the terminals of interest, and
the Norton resistance is identical to the Thévenin resistance.
 Thévenin equivalent
Original Circuit

Thévenin equivalent Norton Equivalent

Source
Transformation
Solution
The easiest solution is to perform a series of source
transformation

Norton equivalent
circuit

7.5
ohm

118
ProbleA voltmeter with an internal resistance of 100-kohm is used
m
to measure the voltage Vab in the circuit shown. What is the
voltmeter reading?

Solution

Find the Thevenin equivalent

with respect to A, B using
source transformations
Objectives

To learn about
Maximum power transfer
Principle of superposition
Maximum Power Transfer

• Suppose that we have a two-terminal circuit, and we want to connect a

load resistance such that the maximum possible power is delivered to
the load. This is illustrated in the figure (a)
• To analyze this problem, the original circuit is replaced with the Thévenin
equivalent as shown in figure (b)
Maximum Power Transfer

• The current flowing through the load

resistance is given by

• The power delivered to the load is

• Substituting for the current, we have

Maximum Power Transfer

• To find the value of the load resistance that maximizes the power delivered to
the load, we set the derivative of with respect to equal to zero i.e.

• Solving for the load resistance, we have

• Thus, the load resistance that absorbs maximum power from a two-terminal
circuit is equal to the Thévenin resistance. By substitution, the maximum power
is given by
Maximum Power Transfer
Solution
• First, we find the Thévenin equivalent resistance by zeroing
the voltage source i.e.

• The Thévenin voltage is equal to the open-circuit

voltage. By using voltage-division principle, we get

• Maximum power is therefore given

• Hence, load resistance that receives maximum power is by
Principle of superposition
 How to deactivate a source?

(a) replacing a deactivated voltage source with a short circuit,

(b) replacing a deactivated current source with an open circuit.
The Principle of Superposition

If a circuit composed of linear elements contains

N independent sources, any element voltage
or current in that circuit is composed of the sum of
N contributions, each of which is due to one of the
sources acting individually when all others
are set equal to zero (Deactivated)
 Principle of Superposition SP
Example Calculate I using SP
 Principle of Superposition
Example Calculate I using SP

4
′ ′′ 6
𝐼= =0 .25 𝐴 𝐼 =2 =0 . 75 𝐴
6 +10 6+10
𝑰= 𝑰 ′ +𝑰 ′ ′ =𝟎 . 𝟐𝟓+𝟎 . 𝟕𝟓=𝟏 𝑨
131
Principle of superposition
Solution
• We analyse the circuit with only one source activated at a
time and add the responses
• Figure (b) shows the circuit with only the voltage source
active. The response can be found by applying the
voltage-division principle:
Solution
• Next, we analyse the circuit with only the current
source active as shown in Figure (c). In this case, the
resistances and are in parallel, and the equivalent
resistance is

• The voltage due to current source is given

by

• Obtaining total response by adding

individual responses:
Principle of superposition
Principle of Superposition

Example Calculate I using SP

Example: determine v and i

+
Ex 3.1: Determine V and I using Superposition

Current division

Current division
 Single loop

Voltage division
 Team Problem on Superposition

Exampl Calculate V using SP

e

V
-
Ans:
Answer is to get the Thevenin resistance
(R_Th) seen by the voltage source
R_Th = [ (R9//R7)+(R5//R6) ] // R8 + R1 +
R2