Signals

Generally, the information is not in a form

that can be transmitted over a Link

The binary digits must be converted into a

form that Transmission Medium can accept

The data stream of 1s and 0s must be turned

into Signals
 Analog
ANALOG
Refers to something that is Continuous

CONTINUOUS
 A set of specific points of data and all
possible points between them
 Digital
DIGITAL
Refers to something that is Discrete

DISCRETE
 A set of specific points of data with no
points in between
 Analog and Digital Data
Analog Data
Human Voice

Digital Data
Data stored in the memory of a
computer
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Signals
(Analog or Digital)

Periodic Aperiodic
Periodic Signals

A signal is called Periodic if it completes

a pattern within a measurable time
frame called a Period and then repeats
that pattern over identical subsequent
Periods
Periodic Signal Example
Aperiodic Signals

An Aperiodic or Non-Periodic signal is

the one that changes constantly
without exhibiting a pattern or cycle
that repeats over time
Aperiodic Signals
Analog Signals
Analog signals can be classified into:

Simple Analog Signal (Sine wave)

Composite Analog Signal

Simple Analog Signal
(Sine Wave)
Simple Analog Signal
(Sine Wave)

Sine waves can be fully described:

Amplitude
Period / Frequency
Phase
Amplitude
Peak Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of
its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it
carries. For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally
measured in volts.
Period and Frequency
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal
needs to complete 1 cycle. Frequency refers to the
number of periods in I s. Note that period and frequency
are just one characteristic defined in two ways. Period is
the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of
period, as the following formulas show.
T= 1 / f OR f=1 / T
Phase
The term phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time O. If we think of the wave as
something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of
that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle.
 Note:

Frequency and period are inverses of

each other.
Amplitude
Period and Frequency

T= 1 / f OR f=1 / T
Table 3.1 Units of periods and frequencies

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz

Microseconds (ms) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

 Note:

The bandwidth is a property of a

medium: It is the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies that
the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
Figure 3.13 Bandwidth
Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 (see Figure 13.4 )
Figure 3.14 Example 3
Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude.

Solution

B = fh - fl
20 = 60 - fl
fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
Figure 3.15 Example 4
Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000
and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000
Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have
the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not
overlap. The medium can only pass the frequencies
between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is totally lost.
Summary
Signals
Analog and Digital
Analog and Digital Data & Signals
Periodic & Aperiodic Signals
Sine Waves and its Characteristics
Reading Assignment