RESEARCH TECHNIQUES IN MARKETING

DR. MARTIN OWUSU ANSAH

 Outline
■ Introduction: Perspectives on marketing research
■ Marketing research process
■ From problem definition to research objectives
■ Research design and data sources
■ Quantitative survey research: measurement scales
■ Quantitative survey research: questionnaire design
■ Sampling and data collection
■ Data Analysis I: Data Cleaning and Descriptive Statistics
■ Data Analysis I: Descriptive Statistics
■ Using Graphs for Descriptive Statistics
 Outline (Contd)
■ Data Analysis II: Statistical inference and
confidence interval
■ Data Analysis III: Testing for Differences
between group means
■ Data Analysis IV: Testing for Associations
between variables
■ Communicating the results of survey
research
Marketing problem, opportunity and process
■ A marketing problem refers to a situation that might represent a real
problem to marketing decision makers.

■ A marketing opportunity refers to any favourable or unexploited situation

in one or more of the marketing environments that can be utilised
proactively by decision makers to the advantage of the organisation.

■ The marketing research process is a sequence of steps involved in the

systematic collection and analysis of marketing data.
The manager and the environment
 What is Research?
■ Research is a scientific process of
gathering and processing information in
order to solve a given problem (applied
research), discover new knowledge
(basic research) or verify information.
 Basic and Applied research
■ Data refers to raw, unanalysed facts.

■ Basic research is undertaken to extend

knowledge.

■ Applied research is undertaken to solve a

specific pragmatic problem.
 Market research and marketing research

■ Market research is undertaken to collect

information about the market statistics. It is
normally used to check the viability of the
product in the target, characterized with limited
scope
■ Marketing research on the other hand is a well –
planned study of the whole marketing process to
collect, analyze and report information.
 Marketing research process
1. Define the problem
2. Determine the research objectives
3. Determine the research design : Descriptive,
explanatory and exploratory
4. Design (Questionnaire, interview guide) and prepare
your research instrument
5. Collect your data
6. Analyze the data
7. Present and communicate results
Basic guidelines in marketing research
■ the research that is conducted should be carefully planned and executed;
■ the research purpose should be clearly and concisely described;

■ the research design should be developed in advance;

■ the research process should clearly specify the data requirements;

■ the mode of data analysis should be anticipated well in advance;

■ the research conducted should be carried out scientifically;

■ the research should be carried out in an unbiased manner; and

■ the execution of the research should not be affected by emotions .

 Research problem
■ Problem statement is important because it directs the
rest of the research project or study.
■ Reflect on the (background to problem) and situate the
problem
■ Highlight the importance of investigating the problem
in the context.
■ Use statistical backing, if possible or references to
indicate the magnitude of the problem.
 Purpose of the study
• It is as good as your “Research Topic” -
indicating the relationships that you seek to
explore, investigate, examine etc.
• Study purpose be brief and indicative of the
direction of Research Project
• Example : The purpose of the study is to
examine the effects of sales promotion on
consumption.
 Research objectives
• Often divided as theoretical and empirical objectives
• It is advisable to draw your theoretical and empirical
objectives directly from your conceptual model.
• Objectives must be specific, measureable, attainable,
realistic, and timely (SMART).
• Action verbs are normally used for both qualitative
research (discover, understand, explore) and
quantitative research (establish, examine, investigate,
analyse).
 Research design
■ Research design refers to the plan,
structure, and strategy of research-the
blueprint that will guide the research
process.
■ It comprised : the descriptive design,
the explanatory design as well as the
exploratory design.
 Research design
Intriguing Observation, More Careful Studying Defining Research
Intellectual Curiosity of the Phenomenon Problem & Objectives

Building the Theoretical

Refinement of theory
Framework and the
(Inductive Reasoning) THE PROCESS OF Research Model
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Testing Hypo.:
Data Analysis & Developing Research
Interpretation Hypotheses

Data Coding, Developing Operational

And Definitions for
Editing Research Variables

Data Collection Sampling Design

 Types of research design
■ Exploratory research
Exploratory research is often conducted in new areas of inquiry in which the aim of the
research is to scope out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem or
behaviour.
■ Descriptive research
Descriptive research examines what, where, and when of a phenomenon. It is directed at
making careful observations and gives detailed documentation on a phenomenon of interest.
These observations are based on the scientific method which means the research must be
applicable and precise; which leads to the conclusion that it should be more reliable than
causal observations (Bhattacherjee, 2012).
■ Explanatory research
Explanatory research, according to Saunders et al. (2009: 140), seeks explanations of
observed phenomena, problems or behaviours and seeks answers to questions as to the why
and how types. It attempts to ‘connect the dots’ in research by establishing ‘causal
relationships between variables’ and identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target
phenomena.
EXPLAINING RESEARCH DESIGN
Sources of data
Sources of data (Contd)
 Quantitative and qualitative

■ A quantitative research is one in which the investigator

primarily uses positivist claims for developing knowledge (i.e.
cause and effect thinking, reduction to specific variables and
hypotheses and questions, use of measurement and observation,
and the test of theories) (Creswell, 2003, p.19).
■ A qualitative research is one in which the inquirer often makes
knowledge claims based primarily when exploring for something
new (i.e. the multiple meanings of individual experiences,
meanings socially and historically constructed, with an intent of
developing a theory or pattern) or advocacy/participatory
perspectives (i.e. political, issue-oriented, collaborative or
change oriented) or both. (Creswell, 2003, p.18).
Research approach (Qualitative research)
Research approach (Quantitative research)
The two approaches
 Research measurement instrument
• A measurement instrument is a measure which combines the values of
several items or variables (also called indicators, observations, events,
questions) into a composite measure in order to predict or gauge some
underlying continuum which can only be partially measured by single
item or variable
• In an exploratory study, a researcher has to develop the measurement
instrument
• However, a researcher can adopt and adapt measurement instruments
from prior studies
• If measurement instruments are adapted from previous studies, the source
aught to be provided and the number of items used for each variable
• The research also need to provide the measurement scale, e.g. Is it a “5
Point Likert scale” or a “7-Point Likert scale” and the anchors, i.e. -
strongly disagree; disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly agree (for 5 point
Likert scale).
Measurement instrument
 Measurement instrument
■Categorical (Nominal) ie Sex –
Male/Female, Yes/No
■Ordinal (Ranking) ie 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
■Continuous (Interval level data) ie
Agree, Neutral etc.
 Variables and their relationships
■ A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality
that varies
■ Independent variable
 The variable that can be controlled or manipulated by the
researcher
 The variable that is thought to have some effect upon the
dependent variable or the one that cannot be controlled.
■ Dependent variable
 The outcome
 That which is influenced or affected by the dependent variable.
 Conceptualizing a research model
– Direct Causal Relationships
• Predictor(s) Variable(s)
• Outcome(s) Variable(s)
Conceptualizing a research model (Contd)

– Indirect Causal Relationships

• Predictor(s) Variable(s)
• Mediator(s) Variable(s)
• Outcome(s) Variable(s)
 Hypothesis statement
• Hypothesis = an idea that will be tested through systematic
investigation.
• A researcher’s prediction of what outcomes will occur
• Adopt one style and be consistent
• State the causal relationships between the research variables
or linkages
• E.g.
– There is a positive (negative) relationship between “A” and “B”
– “A” is positively (negatively) related to “B”
– The higher the level of “A” the greater the level of “B”.
 Conceptual model
A model is a representation of real objects or situations or it is a representation or an
abstraction of reality.
 Questionnaire design
• Source of measurement scale
• Number of instruments measuring a latent
variable
• Level of adaptations made to the
measurement items
• Number of points on the Likert scale (e.g. 5-
Point Likert; 7- Point Likert scale e.t.c)
 Sampling
• Sample design covers all aspects of how the samples in
the survey is specified and selected.
• The design of samples is a particularly important aspect
of survey methodology, and provides a basis for the
sound measurement of economic and social phenomena
from surveys of businesses and households.
Sampling design covers:
– Target Population
– Sampling Frame
– Sample Size
– Sampling Method.
An illustration of a sampling design
 Population
• Target population is the aggregation of elements (members
of the population) from which the sample is actually
selected.
• The target population for a survey is the entire set of units
for which the survey data are to be used to make
inferences.
• Target population defines those units for which the
findings of the survey are meant to generalize.
• Target population refers to the entire group of individuals
or objects to which researchers are interested in
generalizing the conclusions.
 Sampling frame
• Sampling frame is the list of elements from which the
sample is actually drawn – a complete and correct list of
the population members only.
• In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or
device from which a sample is drawn.
• Sampling frame is a list of all those within a population
who can be sampled, and may include individuals,
households or institutions.
• A sampling frame is a complete list of all the members of
the population that we wish to study.
 Sample size
• Sample size is the actual number or size of the sample
• There are no fixed rules in determining the size of a sample needed.
• But for a greater accuracy and reliability of results, a larger sample is desirable.
• However, there are guidelines to be observed in determining the size of a sample,
i.e.:
– When the population is more or less homogeneous and only the typical, normal,
or average is desired to be known, a smaller sample is enough. However, if the
differences are desired to be known, then a larger sample is needed.
– When a population is more or less heterogeneous and only the typical, normal or
average is desired to be known, then a larger sample is needed. However, if only
their differences are desired to be know, a smaller sample is sufficient.
– The Statistical software to be used to analyse the data is another guiding
indicator of the sample size needed. E.g. – Structural equation modeling with
AMOS or LISREL requires a bigger sample size – 300 plus. The bigger the
better. However, Structural equation modeling with Smart PLS requires a sample
size of at least 100 plus.
 Sampling method or technique
• The sampling method is the scientific procedure of
selecting those sampling units which would provide the
required estimates with associated margins of
uncertainty, arising from examining only a part and not
the whole.
• There are two sampling Methods:
– Probability sampling
– Non-probability sampling
• Note that for quantitative studies probability sampling
method is imperative.
A diagram depicting probability and non - probability sampling
 Probability sampling
• A sample is a proportion of the population and such
sample is selected from the population by means of
some systematic way in which every element of the
population has a chance of being included in the sample
• Types of Probability Sampling:
– Simple random probability sampling
– Systematic probability sampling
– Stratified probability sampling
– Cluster probability sampling
 Simple random sampling
• This type of sampling is one in which every one in the
population of the inquiry has an equal chance of being selected
to be included in the sample
• Also called the lottery or raffle type of sampling
• This may be used if the population has no differentiated levels,
sections or classes.
• It is done with or without replacement
• The main advantage of this technique of sampling is that, it is
easy to understand and it is easy to apply.
• The disadvantage is that, it is hard to use with too large a
population because of the difficulty encountered in writing the
names of the persons involved.
 Systematic sampling
• Systematic probability sampling is a technique of sampling in
which every Nth name in a list may be selected to be included
in a sample
• It is also called interval sampling, there is a gap or interval,
between each selected unit in the sample
• It is used when the subjects or respondents in the stud are
arrayed or arranged in some systematic or logical manner such
as alphabetical arrangement
• The main advantage is that it is more convenient, faster and
more economic
• The disadvantage is that the sample becomes biased if the
persons in the list belong to a class by themselves whereas the
investigation requires that all sectors of the population are to be
 Stratified sampling
• Stratified probability sampling is a process of selecting
randomly, samples from the different strata of the
population used in the study
• The advantage is that it contributes much to the
representative of the sample.
 Cluster sampling
• Cluster probability sampling is also called Multistage
cluster sampling
• It is used when the population is so big or the
geographical area of the research is so large
• The advantage of cluster probability sampling is that,
of efficiency
• The disadvantage is that it has reduced accuracy or
representativeness, on the account of the fact that in
every stage there is a sampling error.
 Non – probability sampling
• A sample is a proportion of the population and such sample
is selected from the population by means of some systematic
way in which not every element of the population has a
chance of being included in the sample
• Types of non - probability Sampling:
– Convenience sampling
– Snowball / Referral
– Quota
– Purposive
Once a non – probability sampling is used in a quantitative research,
it means that, there should be some limitations associated with the
study’s findings.
 Convenience sampling

■Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling in

which probable respondents are sampled at a particular location
which takes a form of primary contemplation. A typical example
is a researcher attempt to sample participants at a mall or sample
passersby as part of his or he technique in getting a required
number; he or she wants. It can also be done by mailing list or
sending e-mail invitations to respondents to take part in surveys
(Baker et al., 2013).
 Snowball sampling
■Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used to
sample 'hard-to-reach' participants whereby respondents from hidden
populations are requested to recommend other participants from the
population of the same interest (Vogt et al., 2012). After a careful analysis of
both probability and non-probability sampling technique - regarding their
feasibility and accuracy in supporting the study. The researcher employed a
non - probability sampling technique and the reasons are given in the
subsequent page.
 Quota sampling
■Quota sampling is where participants are asked to sample a
definite number of people with particular features in order to get a
sample that will ‘mirror’ the intended respondents in terms of
characteristics (Bethlehem, 2014; Bryman et al., 2014:180).
 Purposive sampling
■Cooper and Greenaway (2015) defined purposive sampling as a
form of judgemental sampling where researchers select or sample
respondents who they decide are most suitable to take part in the
study. Example: a study that requires a particular expert on a
particular theme.
Distribution and collection of questionnaire

■ Select the method you will use to distribute and collect your
questionnaire
■ Use of research assistance if possible for distribution and
collection of questionnaire OR
■ Mailing questionnaire (posting or e-mailing) OR
■ Use of telephone
■ Please note that each chosen method has its merits and
demerits
■ Weigh the pros and cons of each method before selecting the
appropriate method for your research.
 Data Analysis Approach And Statistical Approach
Preparing and reporting
■Coding data in Excel Spreadsheet and data cleansing.
■Transforming data and descriptive statistics (Profile data frequency tables e.t.c. using SPSS 21 Statistical software.

Data Analysis Statistical Software

■Microsoft Excel
■SPSS
■SEM – Structural Equation Modelling
LISREL
AMOS
Smart PLS
MPLUS
Validation
■Reliability = Cronbach Alpha (> 0.7)
■Validity = Inter-construct correlation Matrix

4. Determining significance levels

■Probability value ie p < 0.05
■Asymp sig……….
■Sig (2 – tailed) ………
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics in a diagram
 Statistical technique
1. Descriptive analysis / Cross tabulation
2. Chi – square ( Two categorical questions)
3. T – test ( One categorical and one continuous
question)
4. Correlation analysis (Two Continuous variables)
5. Regression analysis ( Two or more continuous with
both Dependent and Independent variables).
6. Analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Chi – Square
T-test statistic
Correlation analysis
Regression analysis
Regression ANOVA
Determination of coefficients
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
ANOVA
ANOVA (Contd)
Research proposal
Thank you