Sir Charles Lyell

Chapter 8

Time and Geology

Image source: www.mnsu.edu/emuseum

Simple Geologic Time
Scale
Absolute or Numerical Age
• Isotopic Dating
• Uses of Isotopic Dating

Combining Relative and Absolute Ages

The Age of the Earth
• Comprehending Geologic Time  
Radioactive Decay Mechanisms
Operates when Z ≥ 58
222
Rn86 -> 218Po84 +  (5.5 MeV) + 

n0 = p+ + e-
40
K19 -> 40Ca20 +  (1.3 MeV) + 

e- + p+ = n0
125
I53 -> 125Te52 +  (~3 KeV)
 Radioactive decay and radiogenic Isotopes
• “Radiogenic” isotope ratios are functions
of both time and parent/daughter ratios.
They can help infer the chemical
evolution of the Earth.

– Radioactive decay schemes

• 87Rb-87Sr (half-life 48 Ga) –
• 147Sm-143Nd (half-life 106 Ga)
• 238U-206Pb (half-life 4.5 Ga)
• 235U-207Pb (half-life 0.7 Ga)
• 232Th-208Pb (half-life 14 Ga) Rb
87

• “Extinct” radionuclides
87
Sr
– “Extinct” radionuclides have half-
lives too short to survive 4.55 Ga, but
were present in the early solar system.
Uranium 238 Decay Scheme
Instruments and Techniques
• Mass Spectrometry: measure different abundances of
specific nuclides based on atomic mass.
– Basic technique requires ionization of the atomic species of
interest and acceleration through a strong magnetic field to
cause separation between closely similar masses
(e.g. 87Sr and 86Sr). Count individual particles using
electronic detectors.
– TIMS: thermal ionization mass spectrometry
– SIMS: secondary ionization mass spectrometry - bombard
target with heavy ions or use a laser
• Sample Preparation: TIMS requires doing chemical
separation using chromatographic columns.
Clean Lab - Chemical Preparation

http://www.es.ucsc.edu/images/clean_lab_c.jpg
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer

From: http://www.es.ucsc.edu/images/vgms_c.jpg
Schematic of Sector MS
Zircon Laser Ablation Pit
Half-life and exponential decay

Exponential decay: Linear decay:

Never get to zero! Eventually get to zero!
 Rate Law for Radioactive Decay
Pt = Po exp - (to –t)

≡
≡
Where
1st order rate law

Pt quantity of the parent isotope (i.e. 87Rb) at time t;

Po quantity of the parent isotope at som e earlier tim e to, when the
isotopic system wasclosedto anyadditionalisotopic exchange;

≡
λ is the characteristic decayconstant forthe sys tem of interest, which
fe, t1/2, by th
is related to the half-li e equation below:

λ = ln 2 / t1/2

t1/2 is defined asthe half-li

fe, which isthe am ount of time required for 1/2 of the
originalparent to decayand is aconstant.
Rb/Sr Age Dating Equation
87
Rbt = 87Rbo e -λ (to – t)
(Assum e that t= 0, for the present)
87
Rb o + 87Sro = 87Rb t + 87Srt

(Conserva tion ofMass, with 87Sro asthe initial

concentration and 87Srt asthe concentration today)

87 87 87 λ to
Srt - Sro = Rbt (e – 1)
⎛ 87Sr ⎞ ⎛ 87Sr ⎞ ⎛ 87 Rb⎞ λt
⎜ 86 ⎟ = ⎜ 86 ⎟ + ⎜ 86 ⎟ (e − 1)
⎝ Sr ⎠t ⎝ Sr ⎠o ⎝ Sr ⎠ t

y = b + x⋅m
Rb/Sr Isochron Systematics

M1 M2 M3
Basic Geochronological Assumptions
• Decay constants remain constant through geological
time.
– Good reasons to believe this is correct based on nuclear
physics.
– Measurements of decay sequences in ancient supernovae
yield the same values as modern lab measurements.
• System remains closed to addition or subtraction of
parent or daughter
– Depends on the isotopic system and type of rock (mineral)
being measured.
– Careful sample preparation and thorough characterization of
the materials is essential to correct interpretation of results.
Half-lives for common parents
 Independent Checks on Radiometric Ages
• Correlation of erosion with age on Hawaiian Island
Chain: Dates increase in age to the NW as does
erosion.
• Annual growth bands in Devonian corals: 400/yr
yields date that is similar to radiometric date.
Consistent with slowing of Earth rotation with time.
• Independent determination of Pacific plate motion
yields age progression that is consistent with K/Ar
dates of the islands.
• Agreement between magnetic “age” from deep
marine sediments and radiometric ages of tuffs in
East African Rift
Relative and Absolute dates combined
Modern Geological Time Scale
The Age of the Earth
• Early Methods: Long debated among intellectuals
– 1625 Archbishop James Usher determined the Earth was
created 4004 B.C. by counting generations in the Bible.
Young Earth was commonly accepted by western countries.
– Hindus regarded the Earth as very old. 2000 A.D. would be
1.97 million years according to their calendar.
– 1866 Lord Kelvin calculated the age of the earth based on
physical principles. Assumed that the Earth was entirely
molten and had to cool to become a solid. Estimated the age
between 20-40 million years old.
• Unknown sources of heat - radioactive decay
• Assumed that all heat was dissipated by conduction
• Early Isotopic Methods:
– 1905 First crude estimates yielded 2 billion year age
– Meteorites gave dates of 4.5 to 4.6 billion years old
– Modern U-Pb methods yield a consensus value of 4.55 By old
Comprehending Geological Time