RESEARCH METHODS

• Research is a continuous problem solving approach to

learning. It aims and assists in achieving the goal through
analysis and comprehensive investigation.

Characteristics of Research
• It is always directed towards the solution of a problem.
• It is always based on empirical or observable evidence.
• It involves precise observation and accurate description.
• Give emphasis to the development of theories, principles
and generalisations, which are very helpful in accurate
predictions regarding the variable under study.
• It is systematic, objective and logical.
• Define research
According to Cliffered woody, it comprises defining &
redefining the problem, formulating hypothesis; collecting,
organization & evaluating data; makings deduction &
reaching conclusion & at last carefully testing the
conclusion, to determine, whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
• Scientific Research is a systematic and objective attempt to
provide answers to certain questions. The purpose of
scientific research is to discover and develop an organised
body of knowledge.

• It may be defined as the systematic and empirical analysis

and recording controlled observation, which may lead to the
development of theories, concept, generalisations and
principles, resulting in prediction and control of some cause
effect relationship.

• Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled,

empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relationship about various phenomena.
• Burns also defines research as “a systematic investigation to
find answers to a problem’’.
Good Research
• Purpose of good research is should be clearly defined and
common concept that are used should be operationally
defined.
• The research procedure should be precisely planed, focused
and appropriately described in order to enable other
researcher to do research for further advancement.
• Research design should be carefully planned to generate
results to maintain objectivity.
• Research report should be as much as possible frank
enough to gauge effects of the findings.
• Data analysis in the research report should be adequate to
reveal its significance and the method of analysis employed
be appropriate.
• Validity and reliability of data should be examined carefully.
Objective of Good Research
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
• To gain familiarity with a phenomena or to achieve new
insight into it.
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation etc.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else.
• To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between
variables.

Research is a fountain of knowledge . It is a sort of formal

training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
• Qualities of Good Research
• Good research is systematic: It is structured according to set
of rules to follow certain steps in specific sequence.
Systematic research invites creative thinking, and certainly
avoids use of guessing and intuition for arriving at the
conclusion.

• Good research is empirical: It implies that any conclusion

drawn is based upon evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences and observations.

• Good research is valid and verifiable: Research involves

precise observation and accurate description. The researcher
selects reliable and valid instruments to be used in the
collection of data and uses some statistical measures for
accurate description of the results obtained.
• Good research is logical: It suggests that research is guided
by the rules of reasoning and logical process of induction
(general to specific) and deduction (specific to general) in
carrying out research. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more feasible and more meaningful in the context
of decision making.

• Good research develops theories and principles: It is helpful

in accurate prediction regarding the variables under study.
On the basis of the sample observed and studied, the
researcher makes sound generalisations regarding the whole
population.

• Research is replicable: One researcher may use the result

obtained by another researcher. The procedure and result of
research are replicable as well as transmittable.
The values and standards that are essential components of
scientific method.
• Accuracy: A commitment of gathering and evaluating
information about the world in as careful, precise, and
error-free a manner as possible.
• Objectivity: A commitment to obtaining and evaluating
such information in a manner as free from bias as
humanly possible.
• Scepticism- A commitment to accepting findings as
accurate only after they have been verified over and over
again, preferably by many different scientists.
• Open-mindedness- A commitment to changing one’s
views – even views that are strongly held- in the face of
evidence that these views are inaccurate.
Types of Research
• Fundamental or pure or basis research: A fundamental research
is the for mal and systematic process where the researcher’s aim
is to develop a theory or a model by identifying all the important
variables in the situation and discovering broad generalisations
and principles about these variables.

• Applied research: It applies the theory or model developed

theories bot to test those existing theories in actual problem
situations.

• Action research has recently been popular in the field of social

psychology, industrial psychology and education. In action
research, researcher focuses upon the immediate consequences
and applications of a problem of a theory or a model.
• Descriptive research- It includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive
research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.

• Ex post facto research-The main characteristic of this method

is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to
discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.

• Analytical research-The researcher has to use facts or

information already available, and analyse these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
• Quantitative research- It is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can
be expressed in terms of quantity.

• Qualitative research- It is concerned with qualitative

phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind.
• Motivation Research an important type of qualitative
research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews
for the purpose.

• Qualitative research is specially important in the

behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
• Conceptual research- It is related to some abstract idea or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

• Empirical research- It is based on experience or

observation alone. It is data-based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment.

• In this research, the researcher must first provide himself

with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable
results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove
or disprove his hypothesis.
• Clinical or diagnostic research- It follow case-study methods or
in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such
studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that
interest us, using very small samples.

• Historical research- It utilizes historical sources like documents,

remains, to study events or ideas of the past, including the
philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.

• Decision-oriented research- It is always for the need of a decision

maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his own inclination.

• Operations research is an example of decision oriented research

since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments
with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control.
The role of Theory in Scientific Method
• On the basis of existing evidence, a theory is formulated
• This theory which consists of some basic concepts and
statements about how these concepts are related, helps
to organize existing information and also makes
predictions about observable events.

• These predictions, known as hypothesis, are then tested

by actual observations by research.

• If results of new observations are consistent with theory ,

confidence in it is increased. If they are not, the theory is
modified and further tests of its predictions are performed.
• Ultimately the theory is either accepted as accurate or
rejected as inaccurate. Even if it is accepted as accurate,
however, it remains open to further refinement as
additional research is conducted.

• Theories- In science, frameworks for explaining various

events or processes.
• Hypothesis- Testable predictions derived from theories.
• Research Methods versus Methodology

• Research methods- It may be understood as all those

methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
• In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research
problem are termed as research methods.

• Research techniques refer to the behaviour and

instruments we use in performing research operations
such as making observations, recording data, techniques
of processing data etc. It is used in selecting and
constructing research technique.
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.

• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.

• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain

indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
median or the standard deviation or chi-square.

• how to apply particular research techniques, but they also

need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not.
• Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the
criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems.

• Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only

talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods.

Research and Scientific Method

• Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from
accepted postulates”.
• Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as
“an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances,
whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur.

Research Process

• Research process can be divided into two major

categories that usually occur in sequence that is (i) getting
an idea {context of discovery} (ii) testing it { context of
justification}.
 Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.

Define Review of Formulate Research Sample Collection Analysis Test Interpret

Research literature Hypothesis design design of Data of Data hypothesis &
Problem Report
• Formulating the research problem: The researcher must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to
inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way.

• Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a

working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a
general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first
step in a scientific enquiry.

• Research problem is mostly used in two field i.e. (i) Academic (ii)
Business Field
• In academic field of research study, while formulating the research
problem, some times the ideas taken from research guide by the
researcher.
• In Business Field the researcher taken the helps of management or
administrative personnel while formulating the research problem.
• The researcher should not state his research problem in
ambiguous terms and it should be more precise. The statement
of the problem should be clear, simple and concise which will
help in solving the research problem.

• Review of Literature
• A brief survey of previous studies undertaken has to be given.
This will help in filling up the gap in the contribution of knowledge.
• The review of literature should be made in such a manner that
the proposed study adds its own contribution to knowledge after it
is accomplished.

• Review and critical evaluation of the previous studies are done

and it is more meaningful, useful and a correct approach in any
field of investigation. It will provide the stage from where the
research is to be started.
• Formulation of Hypothesis : Hypothesis is a tentative
solution of the problem facing the researcher. It is
generally framed depending on the following sources
The facts established by previous investigation in the area.
The history of the research
The ambiguity
The findings of other studies
The body of the theory

In framing the hypothesis, the researcher has to resort

null hypothesis which studies reasoning rejection of the
under study. The hypothesis should be empirical,
conceptually clear, specific, close to things observable and
related to the body of theory.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track.

• How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

• Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its

origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
• (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning
the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
• (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on
similar problems.
• (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original
field interviews
• Preparing the research design: A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose.

A research design provide answer to the following queries:

What is the study about and what type of data is

required?
What is the purpose and scope of the study?
What should be the place or area of the study?
What time approximately is required for the study?
• What should be the amount of material or number of cases for
the study?

• What type of sampling should be used?

• What method of data collection would be appropriate?

• How will the data be analyzed?

• What should be the approximate expenditure?

• What would be the methodology of the study?

• What should be the specific nature of the study?

The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the
consideration of the following:
• the means of obtaining the information;
• the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if
any);
• explanation of the way in which selected means of
obtaining information will be organised and the reasoning
leading to the selection;
• the time available for research;
• the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance
available for the purpose.
• Sample Design: A sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population.

• For selecting sampling method a researcher should define

the universe or population, decide the size of the sample
which should be of representative in character.

• Systematic samplings : It is one type of probability

sampling. In this samplings, the selection process starts
by picking some random points in the list & then every nth
element is selected automatically until the desired number
(sample size) is secured.
• Stratified sampling : Under this type of sampling plan, the
population is divided into several sub-population that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population & that
different subpopulation is that different subpopulation is called
strata. We then select items from each stratum to constitute a
(units) sample.

• Cluster Sampling : It is the sampling plan, where a sample can be

taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-
overlapping areas & then to randomly select a no. of these smaller
areas called cluster.

• Area Sampling : When cluster form by some geographical sub-

division, then that cluster sampling will be termed as area
sampling.
• Multistage sampling : It is a sampling plan, where the no.
of units (items) are collected from different stages of the
research.
• It is applied in big enquiries extending to a considerable
large geographical area (say) the entire country & it has
no. of advantages.

• Quota Sampling : It is one of the non-probability sampling

plan. In this sampling the interviews are simply given quota
to be filled from different strata, but the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment.